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BRAIN DEATH

 

Compiled by Mary Ann Cheng, M.D.
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri

Overview

1. Agich GJ, Jones RP: The logical status of brain death criteria. J Med Philos10:387-395, 1985.

*2. Ashwal S, Schneider S: Brain death in children: Part II. Pediatr Neurol3:69-77, 1987.

*+3. Beresford HR: Brain death. Neurologic Clinics 17:295, 1999.

4. Byrne PA, Oreilly S, Quay PM: Brain death-an opposing viewpoint. JAMA 242:1985-1990,1979.

+5. Kaufman HH, Lynn J: Brain death. Neurosurgery 19:850-856, 1986.

*6. Shewmon DA: Chronic "brain death": meta-analysis and conceptual consequences. Neurology 51:1538-45, 1998.

*7. Truog RD: Is it time to abandon brain death? Hastings Center Report 27:29-37,1997.

*+8. Van Norman GA: A matter of life and death: what every anesthesiologist should know about the medical, legal, and ethical aspects of declaring brain death. Anesthesiology 91:275-287, 1999.

* 9. Walker AE: Brain death-an American viewpoint. Neurosurg Rev 12(Suppl 1):259-264,1989.

*+10. Wijdicks EF: The diagnosis of brain death. N Engl J Med 344(16):1215-21, 2001.

Guidelines

*+1. Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death: a definition of irreversible coma. JAMA 205:337-340, 1968.
 

*+2. Guidelines for the determination of death. Report of the medical consultants on the diagnosis of death to the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. JAMA 246:2184-2186, 1981.

Comparative Guidelines

*1. Canadian Neurocritical Care Group: Guidelines for the diagnosis of brain death. Can J Neurological Sci 26:64-66, 1999.
 

*2. Haupt WF, Rudolf J: European brain death codes: a comparison of national guidelines. J Neurology 246:432-437, 1999.

*3. Rappaport ZH, Rappaport IT: Principles and concepts of brain death and organ donation: the Jewish perspective. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 74:61-63,1999.

*4. Wijdicks EF: Brain death worldwide: Accepted fact but no global consensus in diagnostic criteria. Neurology 58(1):20-5, 2002.

Diagnosis/Clinical

*1. al Jumah M, McLean DR, al Rajeh S, Crow N: Bulk diffusion apnea in the diagnosis of brain death. Crit Care Med 20:1564-1567, 1992.

*+2. Earnest MP, Beresford HR, McIntyre HB: Testing for apnea in suspected brain death: methods used by 129 clinicians. Neurology 36:542-544, 1986.

*3. Goetting MG, Contreras E: Systematic atropine administration during cardiac arrest does not cause fixed and dilated pupils. Ann Emerg Med 20:55-57,1991.

*4. Goudreau JL, Wijdicks EF, Emery SF: Complications during apnea testing in the determination of brain death: predisposing factors. Neurology 55(7):1045-8, 2000.

*5. Jeret JS, Benjamin JL: Risk of hypotension during apnea testing. Arch Neurol51:595-599, 1994.

6. Lan CJ, Heckmann JG, Erbguth F, Druschky A, Haslbeck M, Reinhardt F, Winterholler M: Transcutaneous and intra-arterial blood gas monitoring--a comparison during apnoea testing for the determination of brain death. Eur J Emerg Med  9(1):51-6, 2002.

*7. Lang CJ: Apnea testing by artificial CO2 augmentation. Neurology 45:966-969,1995.

8. Lang CJ: Apnea testing guided by continuous transcutaneous monitoring of partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Crit Care Med 26:868-872, 1998.

9. Marti-Fabregas J, Lopez-Navidad A, Caballero F, Otermin P: Decerebrate-like posturing with mechanical ventilation in brain death. Neurology 54(1):224-7, 2000.

*10. Nau R, Prange HW, Klingelhofer J, Kukowski B, Sander D, Tchorsch R, RittmeyerK: Results of four technical investigations in fifty clinically brain dead patients. Intensive Care Med 18:82-88, 1992.

11. Regner A, Kaufman M, Friedman G, Chemale I: Increased serum S100beta protein concentrations following severe head injury in humans: a biochemical marker of brain death? Neuroreport  12(4):691-4, 2001.

12. Saposnik G, Bueri JA, Maurino J, Saizar R, Garretto NS: Spontaneous and reflex movements in brain death. Neurology 54(1):221-3, 2000.

Diagnosis/Validation Tests: Electrophysiology

1. Buchner H, Schuchardt V: Reliability of electroencephalogram in the diagnosis of brain death. Eur Neurol 30:138-141, 1990.

2. Fauvage B, Combes P: Isoelectric electroencephalogram and loss of evoked potentials in a patient who survived cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med 21:472-475,1993.

*+3. Garcia Larea L, Artru F, Bertrand O, Pernier J, Mauguiere F: The combined monitoring of brain stem auditory evoked potentials and intracranial pressure in coma. A study of 57 patients. J Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:792-798, 1992.

*+4. Guideline Three. Minimum technical standards for EEG recording in suspected cerebral death. J Clin Neurophysiol 11:10-13, 1994.

*5. Palma V, Guadagnino M: Evoked potentials in brain death. A critical review. Acta Neurol 14:363-368, 1992.

*6. Ruiz-Lopez MJ, Martinez de Azagra A, Serrano A, Casado-Flores J: Brain death and evoked potentials in pediatric patients. Crit Care Med 27:412-416,1999.

7. Shiogai R, Takeuchi K, Ogashiwa M, Hara M, Kadowaki C, Maeda T, Nakamura M: Brain stem auditory evoked potentials monitoring in the diagnosis of brain death clinical application and reliability. Neurosurg Rev 12(Suppl1):328-339, 1989.

*+8. Silverman D, Saunders MG, Schwab RS, Masland RL: Cerebral death and the electroencephalogram. Report of the ad hoc committee of the American Electroencephalographic Society on EEG Criteria for determination of cerebral death. JAMA 209:1505-1510,1969.

9. Sonoo M, Tsai-Shozawa Y, Aoki M, Nakatani T, Hatanaka Y, Mochizuki A, Sawada M, Kobayashi K, Shimizu T: N18 in median somatosensory evoked potentials:a new indicator of medullary function useful for the diagnosis of brain death. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychology 67:374-378, 1999.

*10. Vivien B, Paqueron X, Le Cosquer P, Langeron O, Coriat P, Riou B: Detection of brain death onset using the bispectral index in severely comatose patients. Intensive Care Med  28(4):419-25, 2002.

Diagnosis/Validation Tests: Cerebral Blood Flow

1. Ashwal S, Schneider S, Thompson J: Xenon computed tomography measuring cerebral blood flow in the determination of brain death in children. Ann Neurol 25:539-546, 1989.

2. Dupas B, Gayet-Delacroix M, Villers D, Antonioli D, Veccherini MF, Soulillou JP: Diagnosis of brain death using two-phase spiral CT. Am J Neuroradiology19:641-647, 1998.

3. Facco E, Zucchetta P, Munari M, Baratto F, Behr AU, Gregianin M, Gerunda A, Bui F, Saladini M, Giron G: 99mTc-HMPAO SPECT in the diagnosis of brain death. Int Care Med 24:911-917, 1998.

4. Korein J, Braunstein P, George A, Witchter M, Kircheff I, Lieberman A, Pearson J: Brain death: I. Angiographic correlation with the radioisotopic bolus technique for evaluation of critical deficit of cerebral blood flow.Ann Neurol 2:195-205, 1977.

5. Kurtek RW, Lai KK, Tauxe WN, Eidelman BH, Fung JJ: Tc-99m hexamethylpropylene amine oxime scintigraphy in the diagnosis of brain death and its implications for the harvesting of organs used for transplantation. Clin Nucl Med  25(1):7-10, 2000.

6. Kytta J, Ohman J, Tanskanen P, Randell T: Extracranial contribution to cerebral oximetry in brain dead patients: a report of six cases. J NeurosurgicalAnesth 11:252-254, 1999.

7. Lopez-Navidad A, Caballero F, Domingo P, Marruecos L, Estorch M, Kulisevsky J, Mora J: Early diagnosis of brain death in patients treated with central nervous system depressant drugs. Transplantation  70(1):131-5, 2000.

8. Lovblad KO, Bassetti C: Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in brain death. Stroke 31(2):539-42, 2000.

9. Pistoia F, Johnson DW, Darby JM, Horton JA, Applegate LJ, Yonas H: The role of xenon CT measurements of cerebral blood flow in the clinical determination of brain death. Am J Neuroradiol 112:97-103, 1991.

Doppler Techniques

*1. American Academy of Neurology, Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee. Assessment: transcranial Doppler. Neurology 40:680-681, 1990.

2. Azevedo E, Teixeira J, Neves JC, Vaz R: Transcranial Doppler and brain death. Transplant Proc 32(8):2579-81, 2000.

3. DeWitt LD, Wechsler LR: Transcranial Doppler. Stroke 19:915-921, 1988.

*+4. Ducrocq X, Hassler W, Moritake K, Newell DW, von Reutern GM, Shiogai I, Smith RR: Consensus opinion on diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest using Doppler-sonography: Task Force Group on cerebral death of the Neurosonology Research Group of the World Federation of Neurology. J Neurological Sci159:145-150, 1998.

*5. Karaali K, Cevikol C, Senol U, Arici G, Kabaalioglu A, Ramazanoglu A, Bircan O: Orbital Doppler sonography findings in cases of brain death. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol  21(5):945-7, 2000.

*6. Lampl Y, Gilad R, Eschel Y, Boaz M, Rapoport A, Sadeh M: Diagnosing brain death using the transcranial Doppler with a transorbital approach. Arch Neurol 59(1):58-60, 2002.

7. Otsubo Y, Yoneyama Y, Sawa R, Suzuki S, Araki T: Fetal brain death and Dandy-Walker malformation. Prenatal Diagnosis 19:777-779, 1999.

*+8. Payen DM, Lamer C, Pilorget A, Moreau T, Beloucif S, Echter E: Evaluation of pulsed Doppler common carotid blood flow as a noninvasive method for brain death diagnosis: a prospective study. Anesthesiology 72:222-229,1990.

Management/Organ Donor

*1. Frist WH, Fanning WJ: Donor management and matching. Cardiol Clin 8:55-71,1990.

2. Gramm HJ, Meinhold H, Bickel U, Zimmerman J, von Hammerstein B, Keller F, Dennhardt R, Voigt K: Acute endocrine failure after brain death? Transplantation 54:851-857, 1992.

+3. Jenkins DH, Reilly PM, Schwab CW: Improving the approach to organ donation: a review. World J Surgery 23:644-649, 1999.

4. Lindop MJ: Basic principles of donor management for multiorgan removal.Transplant Proc 23:2463-2464, 1991.

5. Nivet H: Harvesting organs for pediatric transplantation: medical features. Intensive Care Med 15 (Suppl 1):S64-S66, 1989.

*+6. Robertson KM, Cook DR: Perioperative management of the multiorgan donor. Anesth Analg 70:546-556, 1990.

*7. Wang MY, Wallace P, Gruen JP: Brain death documentation: analysis and issues. Neurosurgery  51(3):731-5; discussion 735-6, 2002.
 


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