Society of Neurosurgical Anesthesia and Critical Care

Cardene I.V.

SPINAL CORD INJURY

Compiled by Mary K. Sturaitis, M.D.
Rush University, Chicago, Illinois

Toxicity

*+1. Abram SE: Spinal cord toxicity of epidural and subarachnoid analgesics. Reg Anesth 21:84-88, 1996.

2. Benveniste H, Qui H, Hedlund LW, Huttemeier PC, Steele SM, Johnson GA: In vivo diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance microscopy of rat spinal cord: effect of ischemia and intrathecal hyperbaric 5% lidocaine. Reg Anesth Pain Med 24(4):311-8, 1999.

3. Rowlingson JC: Transient neurologic symptoms: now, with phenylephrine? Anesthesiology 87:737-738, 1997.

*4. Sakura S, Hashimoto K: Neurotoxicity of subarachnoid bupivacaine. Reg Anesth 22:198-199, 1997.

*5. Sakura S, Sumi M, Sakaguchi Y, Saito Y, Kosaka Y, Drasner K: The addition of phenylephrine contributes to the development of transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anesthesia with 0.5% tetracaine. Anesthesiology 87:771-778, 1997.

6. Hashimoto K, Hampl KF, Nakamura Y, Bollen AW, Feiner J, FrasnerK: Epinephrine increases the neurotoxic potential of intrathecally administered lidocaine in the rat. Anesthesiology 94:876-81, 2001.

Ischemia

1. Agee JM, Flanagan T, Blackbourne LH, Kron IL, Tribble CG: Reducing postischemic paraplegia using conjugated superoxide dismutase. Ann Thorac Surg 51:911-914, 1991.

2. Berendes JN, Bredee JJ, Schipperheyn JJ, Mashhour YAS: Mechanisms of spinal cord injury after cross-clamping of the descending thoracic aorta. Circulation 66:I-112-I-116, 1982.

*3. Bower TC, Murray MJ, Gloviczki P, Yaksh TL, Hollier LH, Pairolero PC: Effects of thoracic aortic occlusion and cerebrospinal fluid drainage on regional spinal cord blood flow in dogs: correlation with neurologic outcome. J Vasc Surg 9:135-144, 1988.

4. Breckwoldt WL, Genco CM, Connolly RJ, Cleveland RJ, Diehl JT: Spinal cord protection during aortic occlusion: efficacy of intrathecal tetracaine. Ann Thorac Surg 51:959-963, 1991.

5. Burns LH, Jin Z, Bowersox SS: The neuroprotective effects of intrathecal administration of the selective N-type calcium channel blocker ziconotide in a rat model of spinal ischemia. J Vasc Surg 30:334-43, 1999.

*6. Cambria RP, Davison JK, Zannetti S, L'Italien G, Brewster DC, Gertler JP, Moncure AC, LaMuraglia GM, Abbott WM: Clinical experience with epidural cooling for spinal cord protection during thoracic and thoracoabdominal aneurysm repair. J Vasc Surg 25:234-241, 1997.

7. Caparrelli DJ, Cattaneo SM, 2nd, Bethea BT, Shake JG, Eberhart C, Blue ME, Marban E, Johnston MV, Baumgartner WA, Gott VL: Pharmacological preconditioning ameliorates neurological injury in a model of spinal cord ischemia. Ann Thorac Surg 74: 838-844; discussion 844-835, 2002.

8. Cassada DC, Tribble CG, Long SM, Kaza AK, Linden J, Rieger JM, Rosin D, Kron IL, Kern JA: Adenosine A2A agonist reduces paralysis after spinal cord ischemia: correlation with A2A receptor expression on motor neurons. Ann Thorac Surg 74: 846-849; discussion 849-850, 2002.

9. Clark WM, Madden KP, Rothlein R, Zivin JA: Reduction of central nervous system ischemic injury in rabbits using leukocyte adhesion antibody treatment. Stroke 22:877-883, 1991.

10. Dong H, Xiong L, Zhu Z, Chen S, Hou L, Sakabe T: Preconditioning with hyperbaric oxygen and hyperoxia induces tolerance against spinal cord ischemia in rabbits. Anesthesiology 96: 907-912, 2002.

11. Gaviria M, Haton H, Sandillon F, Privat A: A mouse model of acute ischemic spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 19: 205-221, 2002.

12. Matsushita K, Wu Y, Qiu J, Lang-Lazdunski L, Hirt L, Waeber C, Hyman BT, Yuan J, Moskowitz MA: Fas receptor and neuronal cell death after spinal cord ischemia. J Neurosci 20: 6879-6887, 2000.

*13. Shenaq SS, Coselli JS, Safi HJ, Mohindra PK, Rivera V: A prospective randomized study of cerebrospinal fluid drainage to prevent paraplegia after high-risk surgery on the thoracoabdoCrawford ES, Svensson LG, Hess KRminal aorta. J Vasc Surg 13:36-46, 1990.

14. Cunningham JN Jr: Spinal cord ischemia. Introduction. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:3-5, 1998.

15. Danielsova V, Chavko M: Comparative effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist MK-801 and the calcium channel blocker KB-2796 on neurologic and metabolic recovery after spinal cord ischemia. Exp Neuro 149:203-8, 1998.

*16. Davison JK, Cambria RP, Vierra DJ, Columbia MA, Koustas G: Epidural cooling for regional spinal cord hypothermia during thoracoabdominal aneurysm repair. J Vasc Surg 20:304-310, 1994.

17. de Haan P, Kalkman CJH, Vanicky I, Jacobs MJ, Drummond JC: Effect of mild hypothermia and the 21-animosteroid U-74389G on neurologic and histopathologic outcome after transient spinal cord ischemia in the rabbit. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 10:86-93, 1998.

18. Dolan EJ, Transfeldt EE, Tator CH, Simmons EH, Hughes KF: The effect of spinal distraction on regional spinal cord blood flow in cats. J Neurosurg 53:756-764, 1980.

*19. Dommisse GF: The arteries, arterioles, and capillaries of the spinal cord. Surgical guidelines in the prevention of postoperative paraplegia. Ann Royal Coll Surg Eng 62:369-376, 1980.

*20. Drummond JC, Moore SS: The influence of dextrose administration on neurologic outcome after temporary spinal cord ischemia in the rabbit. Anesthesiology 70:64-70, 1989.

21. Fan T, Wang CC, Wang FM, Cheng F, Qiao H, Liu SL, Guo W, Xiang FY: Experimental study of the protection of ischemic preconditioning to spinal cord ischemia. Surg Neurol 52:299-305, 1999.

22. Fercakova A, Halat G, Marsala M, Lukacova N, Marsala J: Graded postischemic reoxygenation reduces lipid peroxidation and reperfusion injury in the rabbit spinal cord. Brain Res 593:159-167, 1992.

23. Francel PC, Long BA, Malik JM, Tribble C, Jane JA, Kron IL: Limiting ischemic spinal cord injury using a free radical scavenger 21-aminosteroid and/or cerebrospinal fluid drainage. J Neurosurg 79:742-751, 1993.

24. Follis F, Jenson B, Blisard K, Hall E, Wong R, Kessler R, Temes T, Wernly J: Gangliosides and spinal cord ischemia secondary to aortic cross-clamping in the rat model. J Surg Res 58:702-706, 1995.

*25. Follis F, Miller K, Scremin OU, Pett S, Kessler R, Temes T, Wernly JA: Experimental delayed postischemic spinal cord hypoperfusion after aortic cross-clamping. Can J Neurol Sci 22:202-207, 1995.

*+26. Griepp RB, Ergin MA, Galla JD, Klein JJ, Spielvogel D, Griepp EB: Minimizing spinal cord injury during repair of descending thoracic and thoracoabdominal aneurysms: the Mount Sinai approach. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:25-28, 1998.

27. Grover GJ, McCullough JR, Henry DE, Conder ML, Sleph PG: Anti-ischemic effects of the potassium channel activators pinacidil and cromakalim and the reversal of these effects with the potassiium channel blocker glyburide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 251:98-104, 1989.

28. Hamilton IN Jr, Hollier LH: Adjunctive therapy for spinal cord protection during thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:35-9, 1998.

29. Hayashi T, Sakurai M, Abe K, Sadahiro M, Tabayashi K, Itoyama Y: Apoptosis of motor neurons with induction of caspases in the spinal cord after ischemia. Stroke 29:1007-12, 1998.

*30. Hemmila MR, Zelenock GB, D'Alecy LG: Postischemic hyperglycemia worsens neurologic outcome after spinal cord ischemia. J Vasc Surg 17:661-668, 1993.

31. Iseli E, Cavigelli A, Dietz V, Curt A: Prognosis and recovery in ischaemic and traumatic spinal cord injury: clinical and electrophysiological evaluation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:567-71, 1999.

32. Ishikawa T, Marsala M: Hypothermia prevents biphasic glutamate release and corresponding neuronal degeneration after transient spinal cord ischemia in the rat. Cell Mol Neurobiol 19:199-208, 1999.

33. Kakinohana M, Taira Y, Marsala M: The effect of graded postischemic spinal cord hypothermia on neurological outcome and histopathology after transient spinal ischemia in rat. Anesthesiology 90:789-98, 1999

34. Kanellopoulos GK, Kato H, Hsu Cy, Kouchoukos NT: Spinal cord ischemic injury. Development of a new model in the rat. Stroke 28:2532-2538, 1997.

35. Katircioglu SF, Saritas Z, Yucel D, Bayazit M, Tasdemir O, Bayazit K: Spinal cord protection with the use of prostacyclin during aortic occlusion. J Surg Res 65:77-81, 1996.

36. Kling TF, Fergusson NV, Leach AB, Nensinger RN, Lane GA, Knight PR: The influence of induced hypotension and spine distraction on canine spinal cord blood flow. Spine 10:878-883, 1985.

*+37. Kouchoukos NT, Dougenis D: Surgery of the thoracic aorta. N Engl J Med 336:1876-1888, 1997.

38. Lang-Lazdunski L, Heurteaux C, Vaillant N, Widmann C, Lazdunski M: Riluzole prevents ischemic spinal cord injury caused by aortic crossclamping. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 117:881-9, 1999.

39. Lang-Lazdunski L, Matsushita K, Hirt L, Waeber C, Vonsattel JP, Moskowitz MA, Dietrich WD: spinal cord ischemia. Development of a model in the mouse. Stroke 31:208-13, 2000.

40. Marini CP, Levison J, Caliendo F, Nathan IM, Cohen JR: Control of proximal hypertension during aortic cross-clamping: its effect on cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and spinal cord perfusion pressure. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:51-6, 1998.

41. Marsala M, Galik J, Ishikawa T, Yaksh TL: Technique of selective spinal cord cooling in rat: Methodology and application. J Neurosci Methods 74:97-106, 1997.

42. Matsumoto M, Iida Y, Wakamatsu H, Ohtake K, Nakakimura Kng L, Sakabe T: The effects of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester on neurologic and histopathologic outcome after transient spinal cord ischemia in rabbits. Anesth Analg 89:696-702, 1999.

43. Matsuyama K, Chiba Y, Ihaya A, Kimura T, Tanigawa N, Muraoka R: Effect of spinal cord preconditioning on paraplegia during cross-clamping of the thoracic aorta. Ann Thorac Surg 1315-1320, 1997.

*44. Matsumoto M, Iida Y, Sakabe T, Sano T, Ishikawa T, Nakakimura K: Mild and moderate hypothermia provide better protection than a burst-suppression dose of thiopental against ischemic spinal cord injury in rabbits. Anesthesiology 86:1120-1127, 1997.

45. Mauney MC, Blackbourne LH, Langenburg SE, Buchanan SA, Kron IL, Tribble CG: Prevention of spinal cord injury after repair of the thoracic or thoracoabdominal aorta. Ann Thorac Surg 59:245-252, 1995.

*46. Murray MJ, Bower TC, Oliver WC Jr, Werner E, Gloviczki P: Effects of cerebrospinal fluid drainage in patients undergoing thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 7:266-272, 1993.

47. Mutch WA, Thomson IR, Teskey JM, Thiessen D, Rosenbloom M: Phlebotomy reverses the hemodynamic consequences of thoracic aortic cross-clamping: relationships between central venous pressure and cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Anesthesiology 74:320-324, 1991.

*48. Mutch WA, Graham MR, Halliday WC, Teskey JM, Thomson IR: Paraplegia following thoracic aortic cross-clamping in dogs. No difference in neurological outcome with a barbiturate versus isoflurane. Stroke 24:1554-1559, 1993.

*49. Mutch WA, Graham MR, Halliday WC, Thiessen DB, Girling LG: Use of neuroanesthesia adjuncts (hyperventilation and mannitol administration) improves neurological outcome after thoracic aortic cross-clamping in dogs. Stroke 24:1204-1210, 1993.

50. Naslund TC, Hollier LH, Money SR, Facundus EC, Skenderis BS II: Protecting the ischemic spinal cord during aortic clamping. Ann Surg 215:409-415, 1992.

51. Okita Y, Takamoto S, Ando M, Morota T, Yamaki F, Matsukawa R, Kawashima Y: Repair for aneurysms of the entire descending thoracic aorta or thoracoabdominal aorta using a deep hypothermia. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 12:120-126, 1997.

52. Piano G, Gewertz BL: Mechanism of increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure with thoracic aortic occlusion. J Vasc Surg 11:695-701, 1990.

53. Ravikumar R, Lakshmana MK, Rao BS, Meti BL, Bindu PN, Raju TR: (-)-Deprenyl attenuates spinal motor neuron degeneration and associated locomotor deficits in rats subjected to spinal cord ischemia. Exp Neurol 149:123-9, 1998.

54. Robertazzi RR, Cunningham JN Jr: Intraoperative adjuncts of spinal cord protection. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:29-34, 1998.

55. Rokkas CK, Sundaresan S, Shuman TA, Palazzo RS, Nitta T, Despotis GJ, Burns TC, Wareing TH, Kouchoukos NT: Profound systemic hypothermia protects the spinal cord in a primate model of spinal cord ischemia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 106:1024-1035, 1993.

56. Rosenthal D: Spinal cord ischemia after abdominal aortic operation: is it preventable? J Vasc Surg 30:391-7, 1999.

*57. Safi HJ, Campbell MP, Ferreira ML, Azizzadeh A, Miller CC: Spinal cord protection in descending thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 10:41-4, 1998.

58. Safi HJ, Hess KR, Randel M, Iliopoulos DC, Baldwin JC, Mootha RK, Shenaq SS, Sheinbaum R, Greene T: Cerebrospinal fluid drainage and distal aortic perfusion: reducing neurologic complications in repair of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm types I and II. J Vasc Surg 23:223-228, 1996.

59. Sakurai M, Fukuyama N, Takizawa S, Abe K, Hayashi T, Shinohara Y, Nakazawa H, Tabayashi K: Inductions of 3-L-nitrotyrosine in motor neurons after transient spinal cord ischemia in rabbits. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:1233-8, 1998.

60. Sakurai M, Hayashi T, Abe K, Itoyama Y, Tabayashi K, Rosenblum WI: Cyclin D1 and Cdk4 protein induction in motor neurons after transient spinal cord ischemia in rabbits. Stroke 31:200-7, 2000.

61. Sakurai M, Hayashi T, Abe K, Sadahiro M, Tabayashi K: Delayed and selective motor neuron death after transient spinal cord ischemia: a role of apoptosis? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 115:1310-5, 1998.

62. Shenaq SA, Svensson LG: Paraplegia following aortic surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 17:81-94, 1993.

63. Simpson JI, Eide TR, Schiff GA, Clagnaz JF, Hossain I, Tverskoy A, Koski G: Intrathecal magnesium sulfate protects the spinal cord from ischemic injury during thoracic aortic cross-clamping. Anesthesiology 81:1493-1499, 1994.

64. Sirin BH, Yilik L, Ortac R, Coskun E, Sirin H, Celebisoy N: Aprotinin reduces injury of the spinal cord in transient ischemia. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 12:913-918, 1997.

*+65. Stys PK: Anoxic and ischemic injury of myelinated axons in CNS white matter: from mechanistic concepts to therapeutics. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:2-25, 1998.

66. Sun J, Hirsch D, Svensson G: Spinal cord protection by papaverine and intrathecal cooling during aortic crossclamping. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 39:839-42, 1998.

*+67. Svensson LG: New and future approaches for spinal cord protection. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 9:206-221, 1997.

68. Svensson LG, Crawford ES, Hess KR, Coselli JS, Safi HJ: Experience with 1509 patients undergoing thoracoabdominal aortic operations. J Vasc Surg 17:357-370, 1993.

*69. Taira Y, Marsala M: Effect of proximal arterial perfusion pressure on function, spinal cord blood flow, and histopathologic changes after increasing intervals of aortic occlusion in the rat. Stroke 27:1850-1858, 1996.

70. Taoka Y, Okajima K: Spinal cord injury in the rat. Prog Neurobiol 56:341-58, 1998.

71. Ulus AT, Saritas A, Yamak B, Surucu S, Tuncer M, Katircioglu SF: ATP-MgC12 utilization for spinal cord protection during experimental thoracic aortic occlusion. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 40:495-9, 1999.

72. Visocchi M, Tartaglione T, Romani R, Meglio M: Spinal cord stimulation prevents the effects of combined experimental ischemic and traumatic brain injury. An MR study. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 76: 276-281, 2001.

73. Wakamatsu H, Matsumoto M, Nakakimura K, Sakabe T: The Effects of moderate hypothermia and intrathecal tetracaine on glutamate concentrations of intrathecal dialysate and neurologic and histopathologic outcome in transient spinal cord ischemia in rabbits. Anesth Analg 88:56-62, 1999.

+74. White ML, El-Khoury GY: Neurovascular injuries of the spinal cord. Eur J Radiol 42: 117-126, 2002.

75. Wisselink W, Money SR, Crockett DE, Nguyen JH, Becker MO, Farr GH, Hollier LH: Ischemia-reperfusion injury of the spinal cord: protective effect of the hydroxyl radical scavenger dimethylthiourea. J Vasc Surg 20:444-491, 1994.

76. Yamada T, Morimoto T, Nakase H, Hirabayashi H, Hiramatsu K, Sakaki T: Spinal cord blood flow and pathophysiological changes after transient spinal cord ischemia in cats. Neurosurgery 42:626-34, 1998.

77. Zhou Y, Zhao YN, Yang EB, Ling EA, Wang Y, Hassouna MM, Mack P: Induction of neuronal and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the motoneurons of spinal cord following transient abdominal aorta occlusion in rats. J Surg Res 87:185-93, 1999.

78. Zvara DA, Colonna DM, Deal DD, Vernon JC, Gowda M, Lundell JC: Ischemic preconditioning reduces neurologic injury in a rat model of spinal cord ischemia. Ann Thorac Surg 68:874-80, 1999.

Trauma

*+1. Agrawal SK, Fehlings MG: Role of NMDA and non-NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors in traumatic spinal cord axonal injury. J Neurosci 17:1055-1063, 1997.

2. Akpek EA, Bulutcu E, Alanay A, Korkusuz P, Acaroglu E, Kilinc K, Ors U: A study of adenosine treatment in experimental acute spinal cord injury. Effect on arachidonic acid metabolites: Spine 24:128-32, 1999.

3. Albin MS, White RJ, Locke GS, Massopust LC Jr, Kretchmer HE: Localized spinal cord hypothermia - Anesthetic effects and application to spinal cord injury. Anesth Analg 46:8-16, 1967.

+4. Amar AP, Levy ML: Pathogenesis and pharmacological strategies for mitigating secondary damage in acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurg 44:1027-39, 1999.

*5. Anthes DL, Theriault E, Tator CH: Ultrastructural evidence for arteriolar vasospasm after spinal cord trauma. Neurosurgery 39:804-814, 1996.

6. Banik NL, Matzelle D, Gantt-Wilford G, Hogan EL: Role of calpain and its inhibitors in tissue degeneration and neuroprotection in spinal cord injury. Ann NY Acad Sci 825:120-127, 1997.

7. Bednar MM, Gross CE, Howard DB, Lynn M: Neutrophil activation in acute human central nervous system injury. Neurol Res 19:588-592, 1997.
8. Bethea JR, Dietrich WD: Targeting the host inflammatory response in traumatic spinal cord injury. Curr Opin Neurol 15: 355-360, 2002.

*9. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, Leo-Summers L, Aldrich EF, Fazl M, Fehlings MG, Herr DL, Hitchon PW, Marshall LF, Nockels RP, Pascale V, Perot PL Jr, Piepmeier J, Sonntag VK, Wagner F, Wilberger JE, Winn HR, Young W: Methylprednisolone or tirilazad mesylate administration after acute spinal cord injury: 1 - year follow up. Results of the third National Acute Spinal Cord injury randomized controlled trial. J Neurosurg 89:699-706, 1998.

*10. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, Holford TR, Young W, Baskin DS, Eisenberg HM, Glamm E, Leo-Summers L, Maroon J: A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. N Engl J Med 322:1405-1411, 1990.

*11. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, Leo-Summers L, Aldrich EF, Fazl M, Fehlings M, Herr DL, Hitchon PW, Marshall LF, Nockels RP, Pascale V, Perot PL Jr, Piepmeier J, Sonntag VK, Wagner F, Wilberger JE, Winn HR, Young W: Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA 277:1597-1604, 1997.

12. Brandser EA, el-Khoury GY: Thoracic and lumbar spine trauma. Radiol Clin North Am 35:533-557, 1997.

13. Bregman BS, Kunkel-Bagden E, Schnell L, Dai HN, Gao D, Schwab ME: Recovery from spinal cord injury mediated by antibodies to neurite growth inhibitors. Nature 378:498-501, 1995.

14. Carlson GD, Minato Y, Okada A, Gorden CD, Warden KE, Barbeau JM, Biro CL, Bahnuik E, Bohlman HH, Lamanna JC: Early time-dependent decompression for spinal cord injury: vascular mechanisms of recovery. J Neurotrauma 14:951-962, 1997.

15. Cassada DC, Tribble CG, Young JS, Gangemi JJ, Gohari AR, Butler PD, Rieger JM, Kron IL, Linden J, Kern JA: Adenosine A2A analogue improves neurologic outcome after spinal cord trauma in the rabbit. J Trauma 53: 225-229; discussion 229-231, 2002.

16. Cheng H, Cao Y, Olson L: Spinal cord repair in adult paraplegic rats: partial restoration of limb function. Science 273:510-513, 1996.

17. Citron BA, Arnold PM, Sebastian C, Qin F, Malladi S, Ameenuddin S, Landis ME, Festoff BW: Rapid upregulation of caspase-3 in rat spinal cord after injury: mRNA, protein, and cellular localization correlates with apoptotic cell death. Exp Neurol 166: 213-226, 2000.

18. Cohen TI, Weinberg RJ, Blight AR: Intrathecal infusion of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-methyl L-arginine after experimental spinal cord injury in guinea pigs. J Neurotrauma 13:361-369, 1996.

19. Cole DJ, Shapiro HM, Drummond JC, Zivin JA: Halothane, fentanyl/nitrous oxide, and spinal lidocaine protect against spinal cord injury in the rat. Anesthesiology 70:967-972, 1989.

20. Cuevas P, Carceller F: Therapeutic implications of fibroblast growth factors in traumatic spinal cord injury. Neurol Res 23: 207-209, 2001.

21. Delamarter RB, Coyle J: Acute management of spinal cord injury. J Amer Acad Orthop Surg 7:166-75, 1999.

22. Dergham P, Ellezam B, Essagian C, Avedissian H, Lubell WD, McKerracher L: Rho signaling pathway targeted to promote spinal cord repair. J Neurosci 22: 6570-6577, 2002.

*23 Ditunno JF Jr, Graziani V, Tessler A: Neurological assessment in spinal cord injury. Adv Neurol 72:325-333, 1997.

*24 Dyste GN, Hitchon PW, Girton RA, Chapman M: Effect of hetastarch, mannitol, and phenylephrine on spinal cord blood flow following experimental spinal injury. Neurosurgery 24:228-234, 1989.

25. Duh MS, Shepard MJ, Wilberger JE, Bracken MB: The effectiveness of surgery on the treatment of acute spinal cord injury and its relation to pharmacological treatment. Neurosurg 35:240-248, 1994.

*26. Farooque M, Hillered L, Holtz A, Olsson Y: Effects of moderate hypothermia on extracellular lactic acid and amino acids after severe compression injury of rat spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 14:63-69, 1997.

*27. Ford RW, Malm DN: Therapeutic trial of hypercarbia and hypocarbia in acute experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 61:925-930, 1984.

28. Gaviria M, Privat A, D'Arbigny P, Kamenka JM, Haton H, Ohanna F: Neuroprotective effects of gacyclidine after experimental photochemical spinal cord lesion in adult rats: dose-window and time-window effects. J Neurotrauma 17:19-30, 2000.

29. Geisler FH, Dorsey FC, Coleman WP: Recovery of motor function after spinal-cord injury: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with GM-1 ganglioside. N Engl J Med 324:1829-1838, 1991.

30. Geisler FH, Dorsey FC, Coleman WP: Past and current clinical studies with GM-1 ganglioside in acute spinal cord injury. Ann Emerg Med 22:1041-1047, 1993.

*31. Gerndt SJ, Rodriguez JL, Pawlik JW, Taheri PA, Wahl WL, Micheals AJ, Papadopoulos SM: Consequences of high-dose steroid therapy for acute spinal cord injury. J Trauma 42:279-284, 1997.

32. Gorio A, Gokmen N, Erbayraktar S, Yilmaz O, Madaschi L, Cichetti C, Di Giulio AM, Vardar E, Cerami A, Brines M: Recombinant human erythropoietin counteracts secondary injury and markedly enhances neurological recovery from experimental spinal cord trauma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 9450-9455, 2002.

33. Grissom TE, Mitzel HC, Bunegin L, Albin MS: The effect of anesthetics on neurologic outcome during the recovery period of spinal cord injury in rats. Anesth Analg 79:66-74, 1994. *34. Guha A, Tator CH, Rochon J: Spinal cord blood flow and systemic blood pressure after experimental spinal cord injury in rats. Stroke 20:372-377, 1989.

35. Hayes KC, Kakulas BA: Neuropathology of human spinal cord injury sustained in sports-related activities. J Neurotrauma 14:235-248, 1997.

36. Heary RF, Vaccaro AR, Mesa JJ, Northrup BE, Albert TJ, Balderston RA, Cotler JM: Steroids and gunshot wounds to the spine. Neurosurgery 41:576-583, 1997.

+*37. Hurlbert RJ: The role of steroids in acute spinal cord injury: an evidence-based analysis. Spine 26: S39-46, 2001.

38. Imamura H, Tator CH: Effect of intrathecal nimodipine on spinal cord blood flow and evoked potentials in the normal or injured cord. Spinal Cord36:497-506, 1998.

39. Jallo GI: Neurosurgical management of penetrating spinal injury. Surg Neurol 47:328-330, 1997.

40. Kaptanoglu E, Sen S, Beskonakli E, Surucu HS, Tuncel M, Kilinc K, Taskin Y: Antioxidant actions and early ultrastructural findings of thiopental and propofol in experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 14: 114-122, 2002.

41. Keane RW, Kraydieh S, Lotocki G, Bethea JR, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Dietrich WD: Apoptotic and anti-apoptotic mechanisms following spinal cord injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 60: 422-429, 2001.

*42. Klusman I, Schwab ME: Effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines in experimental spinal cord injury. Brain Res 762:173-184, 1997.

43. Koda M, Murakami M, Ino H, Yoshinaga K, Ikeda O, Hashimoto M, Yamazaki M, Nakayama C, Moriya H: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor suppresses delayed apoptosis of oligodendrocytes after spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 19: 777-785, 2002.

44. Landrum LM, Jones SL, Blair RW: The expression of Fos-labeled spinal neurons in response to colorectal distension is enhanced after chronic spinal cord transection in the rat. Neuroscience 110: 569-578, 2002.

45. Legos JJ, Gritman KR, Tuma RF, Young WF: Coadministration of methylprednisolone with hypertonic saline solution improves overall neurological function and survival rates in a chronic model of spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery 49: 1427-1433, 2001.

*46. Liu XZ, Xu XM, Hu R, Du C, Zhang SX, McDonald JW, Dong HX, Wu YJ, Fan GS, Jacquin MF, Hsu CY, Choi DW: Neuronal and glial apoptosis after traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 17:5395-5406, 1997.

*47. Marino RJ, Ditunno JF Jr, Donovan WH, Maynard F, Jr: Neurologic recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury: data from the Model Spinal Cord Injury Systems. Arch Phys Med Rehab80:1391-6, 1999.

*48. Maynard FM Jr, Bracken MB, Creasey G, Ditunno JF Jr, Donovan WH, Ducker TB, Garber SL, Marino RJ, Stover SL, Tator CH, Waters RL, Wilberger JE, Young W: International Standards for Neurological and Functional Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. American Spinal Injury Association. Spinal Cord 35:266-274, 1997.

+49. McDonald JW: Repairing the damaged spinal cord. Scientif Amer281:64-73, 1999. Miscusi M: The role of constitutive nitric oxide synthase in pathogenesis of secondary lesion after spinal cord injury. Preliminary results. J Neurosurg Sci 46: 55-59, 2002.

50. Murray M: Strategies and mechanisms of recovery after spinal cord injury. Adv Neurol 72:219-225, 1997

51. Nesathurai S: Steroids and spinal cord injury: revisiting the NASCIS 2 and NASCIS 3 trials. J Trauma-Inj Infect Crit Care 45:1088-93, 1998.

*52. Nishisho T, Tonai T, Tamura Y, Ikata T: Experimental and clinical studies of eicosanoids in cerebrospinal fluid after spinal cord injury. Neurosurgery 39:950-956, 1996.

53. Nyberg F, Sharma HS: Repeated topical application of growth hormone attenuates blood-spinal cord barrier permeability and edema formation following spinal cord injury An experimental study in the rat using Evans blue, ([125])I-sodium and lanthanum tracers. Amino Acids 23: 231-239, 2002.

54. Olson L, Cheng H, Zetterstrom RH, Solomin L, Jansson L, Gimenez-Llort L, Hoffer BJ, Perlmann T: On CNS repair and protection strategies: novel approaches with implications for spinal cord injury and Parkinson's disease. Brain Res26:302-5, 1998.

55. Olsson Y, Ahlgren S, Farooque M, Holtz A, Li GL, Yu WR: Pathophysiology of spinal cord trauma: observations on vasogenic oedema and axonal injuries in human and experimental material. Neuropathol Appl Neurobil 22:518-520, 1996.

+*56. Phillis JW, Goshgarian HG: Adenosine and neurotrauma: therapeutic perspectives. Neurol Res 23: 183-189, 2001.

*57. Rhoney DH, Luer MS, Hughes M, Hatton J: New pharmacologic approaches to acute spinal cord injury. Pharmacotherapy 16:382-392, 1996.

58. Sandler AN, Tator CH: Effect of acute spinal cord compression injury on regional spinal cord blood flow in primates. J Neurosurg 45:660-676, 1976.

*59. Senter HJ, Venes JL: Loss of autoregulation and posttraumatic ischemia following experimental spinal cord trauma. J Neurosurg 50:198-206, 1979.

60. Sharma HS, Westman J: Prostaglandins modulate constitutive isoform of heat shock protein (72 kD) response following trauma to the rat spinal cord. Acta Neurochir Suppl 70:134-137, 1997.

*61. Shuman SL, Bresnahan JC, Beattie MS: Apoptosis of microglia and oligodendrocytes after spinal cord contusion in rats. J Neurosci Res 50:798-808, 1997.

62. Springer JE, Azbill RD, Kennedy SE, George J, Geddes JW: Rapid calpain activation and cytoskeletal protein degradation following traumatic spinal cord injury: attenuation with riluzole pretreatment. J Neurochem 69:1592-1600, 1997.

63. Stover SL, DeVivo MJ, Go BK: History, implementation, and current status of the National Spinal Cord Injury Database. Arch Phys Med Rehab80:1365-71, 1999.

64. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Murakami K, Kushimoto S, Johno M, Naruo M, Okabe H, Takatsuky K: Gabexate mesilate, a synthetic protease inhibitor, prevents compression-induced spinal cord injury by inhibiting activation of leukocytes in rates.Crit Care Med25:874-879, 1997.

*65. Taoka Y, Okajima K, Uchiba M, Murakami K, Kushimoto S, Johno M, Naruo M, Okabe H, Takatsuki K: Role of neutrophils in spinal cord injury in the rat. Neuroscience 79:1177-1182, 1997.

66. Taoka Y, Schlag MG, Hopf R, Redl H: The long-term effects of pre-treatment with activated protein C in a rat model of compression-induced spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 38: 754-761, 2000.

+67. Tator CH:Biology of neurological recovery and functional restoration after spinal cord injury. Neurosurg42:696-707, 1998.

68. Tator CH, Fehlings MG: Review of the secondary injury theory of acute spinal cord trauma with emphasis on vascular mechanisms. J Neurosurg 75:15-26, 1991.

69. Thomas AJ, Nockels RP, Pan HQ, Shaffrey CI, Chopp M: Progesterone is neuroprotective after acute experimental spinal cord trauma in rats. Spine24:2134-8, 1999.

*+70. Zeidman SM, Ling GS, Ducker TB, Ellenbogen RG: Clinical applications of pharmacologic therapies for spinal cord injury. J Spinal Disord 9:367-380, 1996.

71. Zhang Z, Guth L: Experimental spinal cord injury: wallerian degeneration in the dorsal column is followed by revascularization, glial proliferation, and nerve regeneration. Exp Neurol 147:159-171, 1997.

Cardiovascular and Respiratory Function

*+1. Amzallag M: Autonomic hyperreflexia. Int Anes Clin 31:87-102, 1993.

*+2. Atkinson PP, Atkinson JL: Spinal shock. Mayo Clin Proc 71:384-389, 1996.

3. Bach-y-Rita P, Illis LS: Spinal shock: possible role of receptor plasticity and non synaptic transmission. Paraplegia 31:82-87, 1993.

4. Baydur A, Adkins RH, Milic-Emili J: Lung mechanics in individuals with spinal

cord injury: effects of injury level and posture. J Appl Physiol 90: 405-411, 2001.

5. Blackmer J: Orthostatic hypotension in spinal cord injured patients. J Spinal Crd Med 20:212-217, 1997.

6. Bravo G, Hong E, Rojas G, Guizar-Sahagun G: Sympathetic blockade

significantly improves cardiovascular alterations immediately after spinal cord

injury in rats. Neurosci Lett 319: 95-98, 2002.

*7. Curt A, Nitsche B, Rodic B, Schurch B, Dietz V: Assessment of autonomic dysreflexia in patients with spinal cord injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 62:473-477, 1997.

8. DeLuca RV, Grimm DR, Lesser M, Bauman WA, Almenoff PL: Effects of a beta2-agonist on airway hyperreactivity in subjects with cervical spinal cord injury. Chest115:1533-8, 1999.

*+9. Eltorai IM, Wong DH, Lacerna M, Comarr AE, Montroy R: Surgical aspects of autonomic dysreflexia. J Spinal Cord Med 20:361-364, 1997.

10. Esmail Z, Shalansky KF, Sunderji R, Anton H, Chambers K, Fish W:

Evaluation of captopril for the management of hypertension in autonomic

dysreflexia: a pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 83: 604-608, 2002.

11. Evans DE, Kobrine AI, Rizzoli HV: Cardiac arrhythmias accompanying acute compression of the spinal cord. J Neurosurg 52:52-59, 1980.

12. Golder FJ, Reier PJ, Davenport PW, Bolser DC: Cervical spinal cord injury

alters the pattern of breathing in anesthetized rats. J Appl Physiol 91: 2451-2458,

13. Houtman S, Colier WN, Oeseburg B, Hopman MT: Systemic circulation and

cerebral oxygenation during head-up tilt in spinal cord injured individuals. Spinal

Cord 38: 158-163, 2000.

14. Hull RD: Venous thromboembolism in spinal cord injury patients. Chest 102:658S-663S, 1992.

15. Ivy ME, Cohn SM: Addressing the myths of cervical spine injury management. Am J Emerg Med 15:591-595, 1997.

16. Jackson AB, Groomes TE: Incidence of respiratory complications following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 75:270-275, 1994.

17. Jacob JE, Pniak A, Weaver LC, Brown A: Autonomic dysreflexia in a mouse

model of spinal cord injury. Neuroscience 108: 687-693, 2001.

18. Jones NA, Jones SD: Management of life-threatening autonomic hyper-reflexia

using magnesium sulphate in a patient with a high spinal cord injury in the

intensive care unit. Br J Anaesth 88: 434-438, 2002.

19. Kim SW, Charallel JT, Park KW, Bauerle LC, Shang CC, Gordon SK, Bauman WA: Prevalence of deep venous thrombosis in patients with chronic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 75:965-968, 1994.

20. Krum H, Louis WJ, Brown DJ, Howes LG: Pressor dose responses and baroreflex sensitivity in quadriplegic spinal cord injury patients. J Hypertension 10:245-250, 1992.

21. Lambert DH, Deane RS, Mazuzan JE: Anesthesia and the control of blood pressure in patients with spinal cord injury. Anesth Analg 61:344-348, 1982.

22. Ledsome JR, Sharp JM: Pulmonary function in acute cervical cord injury. Am Rev Respir Dis 124:41-44, 1981.

23. Lehmann KG, Lane JG, Piepmeier JM, Batsford WP: Cardiovascular abnormalities accompanying acute spinal cord injury in humans: incidence, time course and severity. J Am Coll Cardiol 10:46-52, 1987.

24. Levi L, Wolf A, Belzberg H: Hemodynamic parameters in patients with acute cervical cord trauma: description, intervention, and prediction of outcome. Neurosurg 33:1007-1016, 1993.

25. MacKenzie CF, Shin B, Krishnaprasad D, McCormack F, Illingworth W: Assessment of cardiac and respiratory function during surgery on patients with acute quadriplegia. J Neurosurg 62:843-849, 1985 .

26. Mansel JK, Norman JR: Respiratory complications and management of spinal cord injuries. Chest 97:1446-1452, 1990.

*27. Matthews JM, Wheeler GD, Burnham RS, Malone LA, Steadward RD: The effects of surface anaesthesia on the autonomic dysreflexia response during functional electrical stimulation. Spinal Cord 35:647-651, 1997.

28. McMichan JC, Michel L, Westbrook PR: Pulmonary dysfunction following traumatic quadriplegia. JAMA 243:528-531, 1980.

29. Murphy DB, McGuire G, Peng P:Treatment of autonomic hyperreflexia in a quadriplegic patient by epidural anesthesia in the postoperative period.Anesth Analg 1999; 89(1):148-9

*30. Naftchi NE, Richardson JS: Autonomic dysreflexia: pharmacological management of hypertensive crises in spinal cord injured patients. J Spinal Cord Med 20:355-360, 1997.

31. Prakash M, Raxwal V, Froelicher VF, Kalisetti D, Vieira A, O'Mara G, Marcus

R, Myers J, Kiratli J, Perkash I: Electrocardiographic findings in patients with

chronic spinal cord injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 81: 601-608, 2002.

32. Reines HD, Harris RC: Pulmonary complications of acute spinal cord injuries. Neurosurgery 21:193-196, 1987.

33. Tsai S, Shish C, Shyy T, Liu JC: Recovery of vasomotor response in human spinal cord transection. J Neurosurg 52:808-811, 1980.

34. Viroslav J, Rosenblatt R, Tomazevic SM: Respiratory management, survival, and quality of life for high-level traumatic tetraplegics. Respir Care Clin N Am 2:313-322, 1996.

35. Zhou SY, Goshgarian HG: 5-Hydroxytryptophan-induced respiratory

Recovery after cervical spinal cord hemisection in rats. J Appl Physiol 89: 1528-1536, 2000.

Airway Management

1. Aprahamian C, Thompson BM, Finger WA, Darin JC: Experimental cervical spine injury model: Evaluation of airway management and splinting techniques. Ann Emerg Med 13:584-587, 1984.

*2. Bivins HG, Ford S, Bezmalinovic Z, Price HM, Williams JL: The effect of axial traction during orotracheal intubation of the trauma victim with an unstable cervical spine. Ann Emerg Med 17:25-29, 1988.

3. Criswell JC, Parr MJ, Nolan JP:Emergency airway management in patients with cervical spine injuries.Anaesthesia49:900-903, 1994.

*+4. Crosby ET, Lui A: The adult cervical spine: implications for airway management. Can J Anaesth 37:77-93, 1990.

*5. Gabbott DA: The effect of single-handed cricoid pressure on neck movement after applying manual in-line stabilization. Anaesthesia 52:586-588, 1997.

6. Hastings RH, Kelley SD:Neurologic deterioration associated with airway management in a cervical spine-injured patient.Anesthesiology78:580-583, 1993.

*+7. Hastings RH, Marks JD: Airway management for trauma patients with potential cervical spine injuries. Anesth Analg 73:471-482, 1991.

8. Hastings RH, Wood RP: Head extension and laryngeal view during laryngoscopy with cervical spine stabilization maneuvers.Anesthesiology 80:825-831, 1994.

9. Kirshenbaum KJ, Nadimpalli SR, Fantus R, Cavallino RP: Unsuspected upper cervical spine fractures associated with significant head trauma: Role of CT.J Emerg Med8:183-198, 1990.

*10. Muckart DJ, Chagwanjee S, van der Merwe R: Spinal cord injury as a result of endotracheal intubation in patients with undiagnosed cervical spine fractures. Anesthesiology 87:418-420, 1997.

11. O'Malley KF, Ross SE:The incidence of injury to the cervical spine in patients with craniocerebral injury.J Trauma 28:1476-1478, 1988.

12. Rhee KJ, Green W, Holcroft JW, Mangili JA: Oral intubation in the multiply injured patient: the risk of exacerbating spinal cord damage. Ann Emerg Med 19:511-514, 1990.

13. Sagi HC, Beutler W, Carroll E, Connolly PJ: Airway complications associated with surgery on the anterior cervical spine. Spine 27:949-53.

*14. Shatney CH, Brunner RD, Nguyen TQ: The safety of orotracheal intubation in patients with unstable cervical spine fracture or high spinal cord injury. Am J Surg 170:676-680, 1995.

+15. Stene JD: Anesthesia for the critically ill trauma patient, Trauma: Emergency Surgery and Critical Care. Edited by Siegel JH.New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1987.

*16. Suderman VS, Crosby ET, Lui A: Elective oral tracheal intubation in cervical spine-injured adults. Can J Anaesth 38:785-789, 1991.

17. Talucci RC, Shaikh KA, Schwab CW:Rapid sequence induction with oral endotracheal intubation in the multiply injured patient.Am Surg 54:185-187, 1988.

18. Yan K, Diggan MF: A case of central cord syndrome caused by intubation: a case report. J Spinal Cord Med 20:230-232, 1997.

Medical Issues

+1 Anderson AJ: Mechanisms and pathways of inflammatory responses in CNS trauma: spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 25:70-9. 2002.

*2. Ducker TB: Medical treatment in spinal cord injuries. J Spinal Disord 9:381, 1996.

3. Maynard FM: Immobilization hypercalcemia following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 67:41-44, 1986.

+4. Kennedy P, Duff J: Post traumatic stress disorder and spinal cord injuries. Spinal Cord 39:1-10, 2001.

+5. Lee TT, Green BA: Advances in the management of acute spinal cord injury. Orthop Clin North Am 33:311-5, 2002.

6. MechanickJI, Pomerantz F, Flanagan S, Stein A, Gordon WA, Ragnarsson KT: Parathyroid hormone suppression in spinal cord injury patients is associated with the degree of neurologic impairment and not the level of injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78:692-696, 1997.

7. Molano Mdel R, Broton JG, Bean JA, Calancie B: Complications associated with the prophylactic use of methylprednisolone during surgical stabilization after spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 96:267-72, 2002.

8. Peruzzi WT, Shapiro BA, Meyer PR Jr, Krumlovsky F, Seo BW: Hyponatremia in acute spinal cord injury. Crit Care Med 22:252-258, 1994.

9. Torg JS, Corcoran TA, Thibault LE, Pavlov H, Sennett BJ, Naranja RJ Jr, Priano S: Cervical cord neurapraxia: classification, pathomechanics, morbidity, and management guidelines. J Neurosurg 87:843-850, 1997.

Transplant and Regeneration

1. Akiyama Y, Radtke C, Honmou O, Kocsis JD: Remyelination of the spinal cord following intravenous delivery of bone marrow cells. Glia 39: 229-236, 2002.

2. Asada Y, Kawaguchi S, Hayashi H, Nakamura T:Neural repair of the injured spinal cord by grafting:comparison between peripheral nerve segments and embryonic homologous structures as a conduit of CNS axons.Neurosci Res31:241-9, 1998.

+3. Blesch A, Lu P, Tuszynski MH: Neurotrophic factors, gene therapy, and neural stem cells for spinal cord repair. Brain Res Bull 57: 833-838, 2002.

4. Bregman BS, McAtee M, Dai HN, Kuhn PL: Neurotrophic factors increase axonal growth after spinal cord injury and transplantation in the adult rat. Exp Neurol 148:475-494, 1997.

5. Bruce JH, Norenberg MD, Kraydieh S, Puckett W, Marcillo A, Dietrich D: Schwannosis: role of gliosis and proteoglycan in human spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 17: 781-788, 2000.

6. Bulsara KR, Iskandar BJ, Villavicencio AT, Skene JH: A new millenium for spinal cord regeneration: growth-associated genes. Spine 27: 1946-1949, 2002.

+7. Cao Q, Benton RL, Whittemore SR: Stem cell repair of central nervous system injury. J Neurosci Res 68: 501-510, 2002.

8. Diener PS, Bregman GS: Fetal spinal cord transplants support the development of target reaching and coordinated postural adjustments after neonatal cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 18:763-778, 1998.

9. Diener PS, Bregman BS: Fetal spinal cord transplants support growth of supraspinal and segmental projections after cervical spinal cord hemisection in the neonatal rat. J Neurosci 18:779-793, 1998.

10. GrandPre T, Li S, Strittmatter SM: Nogo-66 receptor antagonist peptide promotes axonal regeneration. Nature 417: 547-551, 2002.

11. Hidaka C, Khan SN, Farmer JC, Sandhu HS: Gene therapy for spinal applications. Orthop Clin North Am 33: 439-446, 2002.

12. Huang DW, McKerracher L, Braun PE, David S: A therapeutic vaccine approach to stimulate axon regeneration in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Neuron24:639-47, 1999.

13. Huber AB, Ehrengruber MU, Schwab ME, Brosamle C: Adenoviral gene transfer to the injured spinal cord of the adult rat. Eur J Neurosci 12: 3437-3442, 2000.

14. Itoh Y, Mizoi K, Tessler A: Embryonic central nervous system transplants mediate adult dorsal root regeneration into host spinal cord.Neurosurg45:849-56, 1999.

15. Kim D, Adipudi V, Shibayama M, Giszler S, Tessler A, Murray M, Simansky KJ:Direct agonists for serotonin receptors enhance locomotor function in rats that received neural transplants after neonatal spinal transection. J Neurosci19:6213-24, 1999.

+16. Kwon BK, Oxland TR, Tetzlaff W: Animal models used in spinal cord regeneration research. Spine 27: 1504-1510, 2002.

17. Lankford KL, Imaizumi T, Honmou O, Kocsis JD: A quantitative morphometric analysis of rat spinal cord remyelination following transplantation of allogenic Schwann cells. J Comp Neurol 443: 259-274, 2002.

18. Liu S, Kadi K, Boisset N, Lacroix C, Said G, Tadie M:Reinnervation of denervated lumbar ventral roots and their target muscle by thoracic spinal motoneurons via an implanted nerve autograft in adult rats after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res56:506-17, 1999.

19. Lu J, Feron F, Mackay-Sim A, Waite PM: Olfactory ensheathing cells promote locomotor recovery after delayed transplantation into transected spinal cord. Brain 125: 14-21, 2002.

20. Ogawa Y, Sawamoto K, Miyata T, Miyao S, Watanabe M, Nakamura M, Bregman BS, Koike M, Uchiyama Y, Toyama Y, Okano H: Transplantation of in vitro-expanded fetal neural progenitor cells results in neurogenesis and functional recovery after spinal cord contusion injury in adult rats. J Neurosci Res 69: 925-933, 2002.

21. Qiu J, Cai D, Dai H, McAtee M, Hoffman PN, Bregman BS, Filbin MT: Spinal axon regeneration induced by elevation of cyclic AMP. Neuron 34: 895-903, 2002.

22. Saporta S, Makoui AS, Willing AE, Daadi M, Cahill DW, Sanberg PR: Functional recovery after complete contusion injury to the spinal cord and transplantation of human neuroteratocarcinoma neurons in rats. J Neurosurg 97: 63-68, 2002.

23. Sayer FT, Oudega M, Hagg T: Neurotrophins reduce degeneration of injured ascending sensory and corticospinal motor axons in adult rat spinal cord. Exp Neurol 175: 282-296, 2002.

24. Shibuya S, Miyamoto O, Auer RN, Itano T, Mori S, Norimatsu H: Embryonic