Compiled by Krishna Boddu, MD, FANZCA
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

Pain, Chronic-Malignant

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12. Elliott TE, Murray DM, Oken MM, Johnson KM, Fraun BL, Elliott BA, Post-White J: Improving cancer pain management in communities: main results from a randomized controlled trial. Pain Sympt Manage 13:191-203, 1997.

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16. Franks PJ, Salisbury C, Bosanquet N, Wilkinson EK, Kite S, Naysmith A, Higginson IJ: The level of need for palliative care: a systematic review of the literature. Palliat Med 14:93-104, 2000.

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24. Manfredi PL, Gonzales GR, Cheville AL, Kornick C, Payne R: Methadone analgesia in cancer pain patients on chronic methadone maintenance therapy. J Pain Symptom Manage 21: 169-174, 2001.

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27. Mercadante S, Serretta R, Casuccio A: Effects of caffeine as an adjuvant to morphine in advanced cancer patients. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. J Pain Symptom Manage 21: 369-372, 2001.

28. Miguel R: Interventional treatment of cancer pain: the fourth step in the World Health Organization analgesic ladder? Cancer Control 7:149-156, 2000.

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30. Palangio M, Northfelt DW, Portenoy RK, Brookoff D, Doyle RT, Jr., Dornseif BE, Damask MC: Dose conversion and titration with a novel, once-daily, OROS osmotic technology, extended-release hydromorphone formulation in the treatment of chronic malignant or nonmalignant pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 23: 355-368, 2002.

+31. Payne R: Transdermal fentanyl: suggested recommendations for clinical use. J Pain Symptom Manage 7(3 Suppl):S40-S44, 1992.

32. Radbruch L, Sabatowski R, Petzke F, Brunsch-Radbruch A, Grond S, Lehmann KA: Transdermal fentanyl for the management of cancer pain: a survey of 1005 patients. Palliat Med 15: 309-321, 2001.

33. Rodan BA, Cohen FL, Bean WJ, Martyak SN: Fibrous mass complicating epidural morphine infusion. Neurosurgery 16:68-70, 1985.

34. Samuelsson H, Nordberg G, Hedner T, Lindqvist J: CSF and plasma morphine concentrations in cancer patients during chronic epidural morphine therapy and its relation to pain relief. Pain 30:303-310, 1987.

35. Samuelsson H, Hedner T: Pain characterization in cancer patients and the analgetic response to epidural morphine. Pain 46:3-8, 1991.

36. Santiago-Palma J, Khojainova N, Kornick C, Fischberg DJ, Primavera LH, Payne R, Manfredi P: Intravenous methadone in the management of chronic cancer pain: safe and effective starting doses when substituting methadone for fentanyl. Cancer 92: 1919-1925, 2001.

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37. Sjöberg M, Appelgren L, Einarsson S, Hultman E, Linder LE, Nitescu P, Curelaru I: Long-term intrathecal morphine and bupivacaine in "refractory" cancer pain. I. Results from the first series of 52 patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 35:30-43, 1991.

38. Sjöberg M, Karlsson PA, Nordborg C, Wallgren A, Nitescu P, Appelgren L, Linder LE, Curelaru I: Neuropathologic findings after long-term intrathecal infusion of morphine and bupivacaine for pain treatment in cancer patients. Anesthesiology 76:173-186, 1992.

39. Stambaugh JE, Reder RF, Stambaugh MD, Stambaugh H, Davis M: Double-blind, randomized comparison of the analgesic and pharmacokinetic profiles of controlled- and immediate-release oral oxycodone in cancer pain patients. J Clin Pharmacol 41: 500-506, 2001.

40. Stevens RA, Ghazi SM: Routes of opioid analgesic therapy in the management of cancer pain. Cancer Control 7:132-141, 2000.

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42. Tarzian AJ, Davidson SM, Hoffmann DE: Management of cancer-related and noncancer-related chronic pain in Connecticut: successes and failures. Conn Med 66: 683-689, 2002.

43. Thompson GE, Moore DC, Bridenbaugh LD, Artin RY: Abdominal pain and alcohol-celiac plexus nerve block. Anesth Analg 56:1-5, 1977.

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46. Wiffen P, McQuay H, Carroll D, Jadad A, Moore A: Anticonvulsant drugs for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD001133, 2000.

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Pain, Chronic-Nonmalignant

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2. Allan L, Hays H, Jensen NH, de Waroux BL, Bolt M, Donald R, Kalso E: Randomised crossover trial of transdermal fentanyl and sustained release oral morphine for treating chronic non-cancer pain. Bmj 322: 1154-1158, 2001.

*+3. Aronson MD: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, traditional opioids, and tramadol: contrasting therapies for the treatment of chronic pain. Clin Therap 19:420-432; discussion 367-368, 1997.

+4. Bajwa ZH, Gupta S, Warfield CA, Steinman TI: Pain management in polycystic kidney disease. Kidney Int 60: 1631-1644, 2001.

5. Balint G: Buprenorphine treatment of patients with non-malignant musculoskeletal diseases. Clin Rheumatol 21 Suppl 1: S17-18, 2002.

6. Banati RB: Brain plasticity and microglia: is transsynaptic glial activation in the thalamus after limb denervation linked to cortical plasticity and central sensitisation? J Physiol Paris 96: 289-299, 2002.

7. Bankier B, Aigner M, Krones S, Bach M: Screening for DSM-IV somatoform disorders in chronic pain patients. Psychopathology 33:115-118, 2000.

*8. Benarroch EE: Pain-autonomic interactions: a selective review. Clin Auton Res 11: 343-349, 2001.

9. Bennett GJ: The role of the sympathetic nervous system in painful peripheral neuropathy. Pain 45:221-223, 1991.

10. Bennett RM: Emerging concepts in the neurobiology of chronic pain: evidence of abnormal sensory processing in fibromyalgia. Mayo Clin Proc 74:385-398, 1999.

*+11. Bennett RM: The rational management of fibromyalgia patients. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 28: 181-199, 2002.

12. Blackburn-Munro G, Blackburn-Munro R: Pain in the brain: are hormones to blame? Trends Endocrinol Metab 14: 20-27, 2002.

*+13. Bolay H, Moskowitz MA: Mechanisms of pain modulation in chronic syndromes. Neurology 59: S2-7, 2002.

14. Bonezzi C, Dermartini L: Treatment options in postherpetic neuralgia. Acta Neurol Scand 173:S25-S35; discussion S48-S52, 1999.

15. Bonica JJ: Causalgia and reflex sympathetic dystrophies. Advances in Pain Research and Therapy. Edited by Bonica JJ, Albe-Fessard I. New York: Raven Press, 3:141-166, 1979.

16. Borsook D, Ploghaus A, Becerra L: Utilizing brain imaging for analgesic drug development. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 3: 1342-1347, 2002.

*+17. Brasseur L: Review of current pharmacologic treatment of pain. Drugs 53(Suppl)2:10-17, 1997.

*18. Breivik H: Chronic pain and the sympathetic nervous system. Acta Anaes Scand 110(Suppl)131-134, 1997.

+19. Campbell FA, Tramer MR, Carroll D, Reynolds DJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ: Are cannabinoids an effective and safe treatment option in the management of pain? A qualitative systematic review. Bmj 323: 13-16, 2001.

20. Carragee EJ, Tanner CM, Khurana S, Hayward C, Welsh J, Date E, Truong T, Rossi M, Hagle C: The rates of false-positive lumbar discography in select patients without low back symptoms. Spine 25:1373-1380; discussion 25:1381, 2000.

21. Carette S, Marcoux S, Truchon R, Grondin C, Gagnon J, Allard Y, Latulippe M: A controlled trial of corticosteroid injections into facet joints for chronic low back pain. N Engl J Med 325:1002-1007, 1991.

*+22. Chabal C, Erjavec MK, Jacobson L, Mariano A, Chaney E: Prescription opiate abuse in chronic pain patients: clinical criteria, incidence, and predictors. Clin J Pain 13:150-155, 1997.

*23. Chapman SL, Byas-Smith MG, Reed BA: Effects of intermediate- and long-term use of opioids on cognition in patients with chronic pain. Clin J Pain 18: S83-90, 2002.

+24. Chaturvedi A, Dash HH: Sympathetic blockade for the relief of chronic pain. J Indian Med Assoc 99: 698-703, 2001.

*+25. Clinch CR: Evaluation of acute headaches in adults. Am Fam Physician 63: 685-692, 2001.

26. Cohen MJ, Jasser S, Herron PD, Margolis CG: Ethical perspectives: opioid treatment of chronic pain in the context of addiction. Clin J Pain 18: S99-107, 2002.

27. Conacher ID: Therapists and therapies for post-thoracotomy neuralgia. Pain 48:409-412, 1992.

28. Coughlin AM, Badura AS, Fleischer TD, Guck TP: Multidisciplinary treatment of chronic pain patients: its efficacy in changing patient locus of control. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81:739-740, 2000.

*29. Cousins MJ: Acute and chronic pain. Inter Anesth Clinics 35:103-105, 1997.

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31. Eckhardt K, Ammon S, Hofmann U, Riebe A, Gugeler N, Mikus G: Gabapentin enhances the analgesic effect of morphine in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg 91:185-191, 2000.

+32. Eriksen J: Opioids in chronic non-malignant pain. Eur J Pain 5: 231-232, 2001.

33. Ezzo J, Berman B, Hadhazy VA, Jadad AR, Lao L, Singh BB: Is acupuncture effective for the treatment of chronic pain? A systematic review. Pain 86:217-225, 2000.

34. Fairbanks CA, Wilcox GL: Spinal plasticity of acute opioid tolerance. J Biomed Sci 7:200-212, 2000.

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*37. Fishman SM, Mahajan G, Jung SW, Wilsey BL: The trilateral opioid contract. Bridging the pain clinic and the primary care physician through the opioid contract. J Pain Symptom Manage 24: 335-344, 2002.

38. Fricton JR: Myofascial pain. Baillieres Clin Rheumatol 8:857-880, 1994.

39. Fukui S, Shigemori S, Yoshimura A, Nosaka S: Chronic pain with beneficial response to electroconvulsive therapy and regional cerebral blood flow changes assessed by single photon emission computed tomography. Reg Anesth Pain Med 27: 211-213, 2002.

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+41. George SZ, Delitto A: Management of the athlete with low back pain. Clin Sports Med 21: 105-120, 2002.

42. Gibbons JJ, Wilson PR, Lamer TJ, Elliott BA: Interscalene blocks for chronic upper extremity pain. Clin J Pain 8:264-269, 1992.

*43. Goddard JM: Clinical management of the child with chronic pain. Paediatr Anaesth 12: 839-840, 2002.

44. Goossens ME, Rutten-Van Molken MP, Kole-Snidjders AM, Vlaeyen JW, Van Breukelen G, Leidl R: Health economic assessment of behavioural rehabilitation in chronic low back pain: a randomised clinical trial. Health Econ 7:39-51, 1998.

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46. Goucke CR, Graziotti P: Extradural abscess following local anaesthetic and steroid injection for chronic low back pain. Br J Anaesth 65:427-429, 1990.

+47. Gray E: Linking chronic pain and depression. Nurs Stand 15: 33-36, 2001.

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49. Gross AR, Aker PD, Goldsmith CH, Peloso P: Physical medicine modalities for mechanical neck disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD000961, 2000.

+50. Guay DR: Adjunctive agents in the management of chronic pain. Pharmacotherapy 21: 1070-1081, 2001.

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52. Hubbard JE, Tracy J, Morgan SF, McKinney RE: Outcome measures of a chronic pain program: a prospective statistical study. Clin J Pain 12:330-337, 1996.

53. Hulsebosch CE: Recent advances in pathophysiology and treatment of spinal cord injury. Adv Physiol Educ 26: 238-255, 2002.

*+54. Hunter J: Medical history and chronic pain. Clin J Pain 17: S20-25, 2001.

55. Jamison RN, Vadeboncouer T, Ferrante FM: Low back pain patients unresponsive to an epidural steroid injection: identifying predictive factors. Clin J Pain 7:311-317, 1991.

56. Jarvis MF, Burgard EC, McGaraughty S, Honore P, Lynch K, Brennan TJ, Subieta A, Van Biesen T, Cartmell J, Bianchi B, Niforatos W, Kage K, Yu H, Mikusa J, Wismer CT, Zhu CZ, Chu K, Lee CH, Stewart AO, Polakowski J, Cox BF, Kowaluk E, Williams M, Sullivan J, Faltynek C: A-317491, a novel potent and selective non-nucleotide antagonist of P2X3 and P2X2/3 receptors, reduces chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 17179-17184, 2002.

57. Jung AC, Staiger T, Sullivan M: The efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the management of chronic pain. J Gen Inter Med 12:384-389, 1997.

58. Karjalainen K, Malmivaara A, van Tulder M, Roine R, Jauhiainen M, Hurri H, Koes B: Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for fibromyalgia and musculoskeletal pain in working age adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2:CD001984, 2000.

*59. Katz N, Fanciullo GJ: Role of urine toxicology testing in the management of chronic opioid therapy. Clin J Pain 18: S76-82, 2002.

+60. Kent-Braun JA, Miller RG, Weiner MW: Magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of human muscle. Radiol Clin North Am 32:313-335, 1994.

*+61. Kerns RD, Otis JD, Marcus KS: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for chronic pain in the elderly. Clin Geriatr Med 17: 503-523, 2001.

62. Krames E: Implantable devices for pain control: spinal cord stimulation and intrathecal therapies. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 16: 619-649, 2002.

63. Krantz MJ, Lewkowiez L, Hays H, Woodroffe MA, Robertson AD, Mehler PS: Torsade de pointes associated with very-high-dose methadone. Ann Intern Med 137: 501-504, 2002.

64. Lacoux PA, Crombie IK, Macrae WA: Pain in traumatic upper limb amputees in Sierra Leone. Pain 99: 309-312, 2002.

*+65. Lamacraft G, Cousins MJ: Neural blockade in chronic and cancer pain. Inter Anesth Clinics 35:131-153, 1997.

66. Landow K: Acute and chronic herpes zoster. An ancient scourge yields to timely therapy. Postgrad Med 107:107, 108, 113-114, 117-118, 2000.

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68. Lee KJ, Kirchner JS: Complex regional pain syndrome and chronic pain management in the lower extremity. Foot Ankle Clin 7: 409-419, 2002.

69. Liu M, Wittbrodt E: Low-dose oral naloxone reverses opioid-induced constipation and analgesia. J Pain Symptom Manage 23: 48-53, 2002.

70. MacPherson RD: New directions in pain management. Drugs Today (Barc) 38: 135-145, 2002.

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78. Miletic G, Pankratz MT, Miletic V: Increases in the phosphorylation of cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) and decreases in the content of calcineurin accompany thermal hyperalgesia following chronic constriction injury in rats. Pain 99: 493-500, 2002.

79. Moore RA, Tramer MR, Carroll D, Wiffen PJ, McQuay HJ: Quantitative systematic review of topically applied non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Brit Med J 316:333-338, 1998.

80. Moskowitz MA: Basic mechanisms in vascular headache. Neurol Clin 8:801, 1990.

81. Nelemans PJ, Bie RA de, Vet HC de, Sturmans F: Injection therapy for subacute and chronic benign low back pain. Cochrane Data Syst Rev 2:CD001824, 2000.

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84. Olesen J: Clinical and pathophysiological observations in migraine and tension-type headache explained by integration of vascular, supraspinal and myofascial inputs. Pain 46:125-132, 1991.

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86. Potter M, Schafer S, Gonzalez-Mendez E, Gjeltema K, Lopez A, Wu J, Pedrin R, Cozen M, Wilson R, Thom D, Croughan-Minihane M: Opioids for chronic nonmalignant pain. Attitudes and practices of primary care physicians in the UCSF/Stanford Collaborative Research Network. University of California, San Francisco. J Fam Pract 50: 145-151, 2001.

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88. Purcell-Jones G, Pither CE, Justins DM: Paravertebral somatic nerve block: a clinical, radiographic, and computed tomographic study in chronic pain patients. Anesth Analg 68:32-39, 1989.

+89. Raja SN: Role of the sympathetic nervous system in acute pain and inflammation. Ann Med 27:241-246, 1995.

+90. Reitman C, Esses SI: Conservative options in the management of spinal disorders. Part II. Exercise, education, and manual therapies. Am J Orthop 24:241-250, 1995.

+91. Robinson JC: Chronic pelvic pain. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 5:740-743, 1993.

+92. Robinson RC, Gatchel RJ, Polatin P, Deschner M, Noe C, Gajraj N: Screening for problematic prescription opioid use. Clin J Pain 17: 220-228, 2001.

93. Rocco AG, Frank E, Kaul AF, Lispon SJ, Gallo JP: Epidural steroids, epidural morphine and epidural steroids combined with morphine in the treatment of post-laminectomy syndrome. Pain 36:297-303, 1989.

94. Rose MJ, Reilly JP, Pennie B, Bowen-Jones K, Stanley IM, Slade PD: Chronic low back pain rehabilitation programs: a study of the optimum duration of treatment and a comparison of group and individual therapy. Spine 22:2246-2251; discussion 22:2252-2253, 1997.

+95. Rosomoff RS, Rosomoff HL: The problem-oriented psychiatric examination of the chronic pain patient and its application to the litigation consultation. Clin J Pain 10:28-51, 1994.

96. Ruhl KB: Rehabilitation considerations for the client with chronic, nonmalignant pain. Lippincott's Case Management 4:90-101, 1999.

97. Sang CN: NMDA-receptor antagonists in neuropathic pain: experimental methods to clinical trials. J Pain Symptom Manage 19:S21-S25, 2000.

98. Scheer SJ, Watanabe TK, Radack KL: Randomized controlled trials in industrial low back pain. Part 3. Subacute/chronic pain interventions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78:414-423, 1997.

+99. Schofferman J: Long-term use of opioid analgesics for the treatment of chronic nonmalignant origin. J Pain Symptom Mange 8:279-288, 1993.

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101. Scudds RJ, Robertson JM: Pain factors associated with physical disability in a sample of community-dwelling senior citizens. Gerontol Series A, Biol Sci Med Sci 55:M393-M399, 2000.

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103. Simon LS: Are the biologic and clinical effects of the COX-2-specific inhibitors an advance compared with the effects of traditional NSAIDs? Curr Opin Rheumatol 12:163-170, 2000.

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105. Smythe HA, Gladman A, Mader R, Peloso P, Abu-Sharka M: Strategies for assessing pain and pain exaggeration: controlled studies. J Rheum 24:1622-1629, 1997.

106. Stein C: Peripheral analgesic actions of opioids. J Pain Symptom Manage 6:119-124, 1991.

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108. Tanelian DL, Brose WG: Neuropathic pain can be relieved by drugs that are use-dependent sodium channel blockers: lidocaine, carbamazepine, and mexiletine. Anesthesiology 74:949-951, 1991.

109. Tasker RR: Microelectrode findings in the thalamus in chronic pain and other conditions. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 77: 166-168, 2001.

110. Thimineur M, Kitaj M, Kravitz E, Kalizewski T, Sood P: Functional abnormalities of the cervical cord and lower medulla and their effect on pain: observations in chronic pain patients with incidental mild Chiari I malformation and moderate to severe cervical cord compression. Clin J Pain 18: 171-179, 2002.

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113. Thomsen K, Christensen FB, Eiskjaer SP, Hansen ES, Fruensgaard S, Bunger CE: The effect of pedicle screw instrumentation on functional outcome and fusion rates in posterolateral lumbar spinal fusion: a prospective, randomized clinical study. Spine 22:2813-2822, 1997.

114. Torstensen TA, Ljunggren AE, Meen HD, Odlnd E, Mowinckel P, Geijerstam S: Efficiency and costs of medical exercise therapy, conventional physiotherapy, and self-exercise in patients with chronic low back pain. A pragmatic, randomized, single-blinded, controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. Spine 23:2616-2624, 1998.

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117. van Tulder MW, Cherkin DC, Berman B, Lao, L, Koes BW: The effectiveness of acupuncture in the management of acute and chronic low back pain. A systematic review within the framework of the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. ACP J Club 132:1113-1123, 2000.

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119. Walker K, Bowes M, Panesar M, Davis A, Gentry C, Kesingland A, Gasparini F, Spooren W, Stoehr N, Pagano A, Flor PJ, Vranesic I, Lingenhoehl K, Johnson EC, Varney M, Urban L, Kuhn R: Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) and nociceptive function. I. Selective blockade of mGlu5 receptors in models of acute, persistent and chronic pain. Neuropharmacology 40: 1-9, 2001.

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Pain, Acute-Postoperative

1. Alexander R, El-Moalem HE, Gan TJ: Comparison of the morphine-sparing effects of diclofenac sodium and ketorolac tromethamine after major orthopedic surgery. J Clin Anesth 14: 187-192, 2002.

2. Aram L, Krane EJ, Kozloski LJ, Yaster M: Tunneled epidural catheters for prolonged analgesia in pediatric patients. Anesth Analg 92: 1432-1438, 2001.

3. Ballantyne JC, Carr DB, Chalmers TC, Dear KBG, Angelillo IF, Mosteller F: Postoperative patient-controlled analgesia: meta-analyses of initial randomized control trials. J Clin Anesth 5:182-193, 1993.

4. Ballantyne JC, Carr DB, deFerranti S, Suarez T, Lau J, Chalmers TC, Angelillo IF, Mosteller F: The comparative effects of postoperative analgesic therapies on pulmonary outcome: cumulative meta-analyses of randomized, controlled trials. Anesth Analg 86:598-612, 1998.

5. Blomberg S, Emanuelsson H, Ricksten SE: Thoracic epidural anesthesia and central hemodynamics in patients with unstable angina pectoris. Anesth Analg 69:558-562, 1989.

+6. Boezaart AP: Continuous interscalene block for ambulatory shoulder surgery. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 16: 295-310, 2002.

7. Bromage PR, Camporesi EM, Durant PAC, Nielsen CH: Nonrespiratory side effects of epidural morphine. Anesth Analg 61:490-495, 1982.

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9. Cartwright PD, Helfinger RG, Howell JJ, Siepmann KK: Introducing an acute pain service. Anaesthesia 46:188-191, 1991.

10. Chan V: Advances in regional anaesthesia and pain management. Can J Anaesth 45:R49-R63, 1998.

11. Chelly JE, Greger J, Casati A, Al-Samsam T, McGarvey W, Clanton T: Continuous lateral sciatic blocks for acute postoperative pain management after major ankle and foot surgery. Foot Ankle Int 23: 749-752, 2002.

12. Chestnut DH: How do we measure (the cost of) pain relief? (editorial). Anesthesiology 92:643-645, 2000.

13. Cousins MJ: Pain: the past, present, and future of anesthesiology? The E.A. Rovenstine Memorial Lecture. Anesthesiology 91:538-551, 1999.

14. Cousins MJ, Mather LE: Intrathecal and epidural administration of opioids. Anesthesiology 61:276-310, 1984.

15. Dahl JB, Kehlet H: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: rationale for use in severe postoperative pain. Br J Anaesth 66:703-712, 1991.

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17. Davis RF, DeBoer LWV, Maroko PR: Thoracic epidural anesthesia reduces myocardial infarct size after coronary artery occlusion in dogs. Anesth Analg 65:711-717, 1986.

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19. Dionne RA, Lepinski AM, Gordon SM, Jaber L, Brahim JS, Hargreaves KM: Analgesic effects of peripherally administered opioids in clinical models of acute and chronic inflammation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 70: 66-73, 2001.

20. Fauerbach JA, Lawrence JW, Haythornthwaite JA, Richter L: Coping with the stress of a painful medical procedure. Behav Res Ther 40: 1003-1015, 2002.

21. Fischer RL, Lubenow TR, Liceaga A, McGarthy RJ, Ivankovich AD: Comparison of continuous epidural infusion of fentanyl-bupivacaine and morphine-bupivacaine in management of postoperative pain. Anesth Analg 67:559-563, 1988.

22. Geller E, Chrubasik J, Graf R, Chrubasik S, Schulte-Monting J: A randomized double-blind comparison of epidural sufentanil versus intravenous sufentanil or epidural fentanyl analgesia after major abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 76:1243-1250, 1993.

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24. Gould TH, Crosby DL, Harmer M, Lloyd SM, Lunn JN, Rees GAD, Roberts DE, Webster JA: Policy for controlling pain after surgery: effect of sequential changes in management. Br Med J 305:1187-1193, 1992.

25. Gourlay GK, Kowalski SR, Plummer JL, Cherry DA, Gaukroger P, Cousins MJ: The transdermal administration of fentanyl in the treatment of postoperative pain: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects. Pain 37:193-202, 1989.

26. Greer SM, Dalton JA, Carlson J, Youngblood R: Surgical patients' fear of addiction to pain medication: the effect of an educational program for clinicians. Clin J Pain 17: 157-164, 2001.

27. Greisen J, Juhl CB, Grofte T, Vilstrup H, Jensen TS, Schmitz O: Acute pain induces insulin resistance in humans. Anesthesiology 95: 578-584, 2001.

28. Guler G, Karaoglu S, Velibasoglu H, Ramazanogullari N, Boyaci A: Comparison of analgesic effects of intra-articular tenoxicam and morphine in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 10: 229-232, 2002.

29. Gustaffasson LL, Schildt B, Jacobson K: Adverse effects of extradural and intrathecal opiates: Report of a nationwide survey. Sweden. Br J Anaesth 54:479-486, 1982.

30. Harrison DM, Sinatra R, Morgese L, Chung JH: Epidural narcotic and patient-controlled analgesia for post-cesarean section pain relief. Anesthesiology 68:454-457, 1988.

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32. Howard A: Treating children's wound pain in the community. Nurs Times 97: 57-58, 2001.

33. Kalso E, Tramer MR, Carroll D, McQuay HJ, Moore RA: Pain relief from intra-articular morphine after knee surgery: a qualitative systematic review. Pain 71:127-134, 1997.

34. Kandela P: Pain-free surgery. Lancet 352:1159, 1998.

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36. Kehlet H: The modifying effect of general and regional anesthesia on the endocrine metabolic response to surgery. Reg Anesth 7(Suppl):538-548, 1982.

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40. Kirson LE, Goldman JM, Slover RB: Low-dose intrathecal morphine for postoperative pain control in patients undergoing transurethral resection of the prostate. Anesthesiology 71:192-195, 1989.

41. Kissin I, Brown PT, Robinson CA, Bradley EL Jr: Acute tolerance in morphine analgesia: continuous infusion and single injection in rats. Anesthesiology 74:166-171, 1991.

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44. Lanz E, Kehrbuyer E, Thiess D: Epidural morphine: a clinical double-blind study of dosage. Anesth Analg 64:786-791, 1985.

45. Lauretti GR, de Oliveira R, Reis MP, Juliano MC, Pereira NL: Study of three different doses of epidural neostigmine coadministered with lidocaine for postoperative analgesia. Anesthesiology 90:1534-1538, 1999.

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49. Loper KA, Ready LB, Downey M, Sandler AN, Nessly M, Rapp S, Badner N: Epidural and intravenous fentanyl infusions are clinically equivalent after knee surgery. Anesth Analg 70:72-75, 1990.

50. Marlow S, Engstrom R, White PF: Epidural patient-controlled analgesia (PCA): an alternative to continuous epidural infusion. Pain 37:97-101, 1989.

51. Mirzai H, Tekin I, Alincak H: Perioperative use of corticosteroid and bupivacaine combination in lumbar disc surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Spine 27: 343-346, 2002.

52. Moore AK, Vilderman S, Lubenskyi W, McCans J, Fox GS: Differences in epidural morphine requirements between elderly and young patients after abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 70:316-320, 1990.

53. Morgan M: The rational use of intrathecal and extradural opioids. Br J Anaesth 63:165-188, 1989.

54. Mourisse J, Hasenbos MAWM, Gielen MJM, Moll JE, Cromheecke GJE: Epidural bupivacaine, sufentanil or the combination for post-thoracotomy pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 36:70-74, 1992.

55. Norman PH, Daley MD, Lindsey RW: Preemptive analgesic effects of ketorolac in ankle fracture surgery. Anesthesiology 94: 599-603, 2001.

*+56. Ogilvy AJ, Smith G. The gastrointestinal tract after anaesthesia. Eur J Anaes 10:35-42, 1995.

57. Orgill R, Krempl GA, Medina JE: Acute pain management following laryngectomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 128: 829-832, 2002.

58. Owen H, Szekely SM, Plummer JL, Cushnie JM, Mather LE: Variables of patient-controlled analgesia 2: concurrent infusion. Anaesthesia 44:11-13, 1989.

59. Owen H, Kluger MT, Plummer JL: Variables of patient-controlled analgesia 4: The relevance of bolus dose size to supplement a background infusion. Anaesthesia 45:619-622, 1990.

60. Parker RK, Holtmann B, White PF: Effects of a nighttime opioid infusion with PCA therapy on patient comfort and analgesic requirements after abdominal hysterectomy. Anesthesiology 76:362-367, 1992.

61. Parker RK, Holtmann B, White PF: Patient-controlled analgesia. Does a concurrent opioid infusion improve pain management after surgery? JAMA 266:1947-1952, 1991.

62. Pedersen JL, Galle TS, Kehlet H: Peripheral analgesic effects of ketamine in acute inflammatory pain. Anesthesiology 89:58-66, 1998.

63. Pickford AM, Eldridge AJ: Effect of continuous epidural 0.2% ropivacaine vs 0.2% bupivacaine on postoperative pain, motor block and gastrointestinal function after abdominal hysterectomy. Brit J Anaesth 84:826-827, 2000.

64. Puntillo KA, White C, Morris AB, Perdue ST, Stanik-Hutt J, Thompson CL, Wild LR: Patients' perceptions and responses to procedural pain: results from Thunder Project II. Am J Crit Care 10: 238-251, 2001.

65. Ready LB, Oden R, Chadwick HS, Benedetti C, Rooke GA, Caplan R, Wild LM: Development of an anesthesiology-based postoperative pain management service. Anesthesiology 68:100-106, 1988.

66. Ready LB, Loper KA, Nessly M, Wild L: Postoperative epidural morphine is safe on surgical wards. Anesthesiology 75:452-456, 1991.

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68. Robaux S, Bouaziz H, Cornet C, Boivin JM, Lefevre N, Laxenaire MC: Acute postoperative pain management at home after ambulatory surgery: a French pilot survey of general practitioners' views. Anesth Analg 95: 1258-1262, table of contents, 2002.

69. Shulman MS, Sandler AN, Bradley JW, Young PS, Brebner J: Postthoracotomy pain and pulmonary function following epidural and systemic morphine. Anesthesiology 61:569-575, 1984.

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71. Simpson T, Wahl G, DeTraglia M, Speck E, Taylor D: The effects of epidural versus parenteral opioid analgesia on postoperative pain and pulmonary function in adults who have undergone thoracic and abdominal surgery: a critique of research. Heart Lung 21:125-140, 1992.

72. Sinatra RS, Sevarino FB, Chung JH, Graf G, Paige D, Takla V, Silverman DG: Comparison of epidurally administered sufentanil, morphine, and sufentanil, morphine, and sufentanil-morphine combination for postoperative analgesia. Anesth Analg 72:522-527, 1991.

73. Stacey BR, Rudy TE, Nelhaus D: Management of patient-controlled analgesia: a comparison of primary surgeons and a dedicated pain service. Anesth Analg 85:130-140, 1997.

74. Stein C, Comisel K, Haimerl E, Yassouridis A, Lehrberger K, Herz A, Peter K: Analgesic effect of intraarticular morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery. N Engl J Med 325:1123-1126, 1991.

75. Stoll A, Sanchez M: Epidural hematoma after epidural block: implications for its use in pain management. Surg Neurol 57: 235-240, 2002.

76. Strassels SA, Carr DB, Meldrum M, Cousins MJ: Toward a canon of the pain and analgesia literature: a citation analysis. Anesth Analg 89:1528-1533, 1999.

+77. Tuman KJ, McCarthy RJ, March RJ, DeLaria GA, Patel RV, Ivankovich AD: Effects of epidural anesthesia and analgesia on coagulation and outcome after major vascular surgery. Anesth Analg 73:696-704, 1991.

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79. Wasylak TJ, Abbott FV, English MJM, Jeans ME: Reduction of postoperative morbidity following patient-controlled morphine. Can J Anaesth 37:726-731, 1990.

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81. Weinbroum AA, Lalayev G, Yashar T, Ben-Abraham R, Niv D, Flaishon R: Combined pre-incisional oral dextromethorphan and epidural lidocaine for postoperative pain reduction and morphine sparing: a randomised double-blind study on day-surgery patients. Anaesthesia 56: 616-622, 2001.

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83. Wheatley RG, Somerville ID, Sapsford DJ, Jones JG: Postoperative hypoxaemia: comparison of extradural, I.M. and patient-controlled opioid analgesia. Br J Anaesth 64:267-275, 1990.

84. Wolfe JM, Lein DY, Lenkoski K, Smithline HA: Analgesic administration to patients with an acute abdomen: a survey of emergency medicine physicians. Amer J Emerg Med 18:250-253, 2000.

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86. Yaksh T: Spinal opiate analgesia: characteristics and principles of action. Pain 11:293-346, 1981.

87. Yeager MP, Glass DD, Neff RK, Brinck-Johnsen T: Epidural anesthesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients. Anesthesiology 66:729-736, 1987.

88. Yeh HM, Chen LK, Lin CJ, Chan WH, Chen YP, Lin CS, Sun WZ, Wang MJ, Tsai SK: Prophylactic intravenous ondansetron reduces the incidence of intrathecal morphine-induced pruritus in patients undergoing cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 91:172-175, 2000.

Pain, Acute-Trauma

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3. Beale JP, Oglesby AJ, Jones A, Clancy J, Beattie TF: Comparison of oral and intravenous morphine following acute injury in children. Eur J Emerg Med 8: 271-274, 2001.

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5. Crandall M, Miaskowski C, Kools S, Savedra M: The pain experience of adolescents after acute blunt traumatic injury. Pain Manag Nurs 3: 104-114, 2002.

6. Desai PM: Pain management and pulmonary dysfunction. Crit Car Clin 15:151-166, vii, 1999.

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8. Dittmann M, Keller R, Wolff G: A rationale for epidural analgesia in the treatment of multiple rib fractures. Inten Care Med 4:193-197, 1978.

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10. Filos KS, Vagianos CE: Pre-emptive analgesia: how important is it in clinical reality? Europ Surg Res 31:122-132, 1999.

11. Follin SL, Charland SL: Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma. Ann Pharmacolther 31:1068-1076, 1997.

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13. Gallagher G, Rae CP, Watson S, Kinsella J: Target-controlled alfentanil analgesia for dressing change following extensive reconstructive surgery for trauma. J Pain Symptom Manage 21: 1-2, 2001.

14. Hedderich R, Ness TJ: Analgesia for trauma and burns. Crit Care Clin 15:167-184, 1999.

15. Kasch H, Stengaard-Pedersen K, Arendt-Nielsen L, Staehelin Jensen T: Pain thresholds and tenderness in neck and head following acute whiplash injury: a prospective study. Cephalalgia 21: 189-197, 2001.

16. Kehlet H: Multimodal approach to control postoperative pathophysiology and rehabilitation. Brit J Anaesth 78:606-617, 1997.

17. Kendall JM, Reeves BC, Latter VS: Multicentre randomised controlled trial of nasal diamorphine for analgesia in children and teenagers with clinical fractures. Bmj 322: 261-265, 2001. *18. Kohler H, Schulz S, Wiebalck A: Pain management in children: assessment and documentation in burn units. Eur J Pediatr Surg 11: 40-43, 2001.

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20. Kurvers HA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: facts and hypotheses. Vasc Med 3:207-214, 1998.

21. Lehmann KA: Patient-controlled analgesia: an efficient therapeutic tool in the postoperative setting. Euro Surg Res 31:112-121, 1999.

22. Lehmann KA: Tramadol for the management of acute pain. Drugs 47(Suppl)1:19-32, 1994.

23. Mackersie RC, Shackford SR, Hoyt DB, Karagianes TG: Continuous epidural fentanyl analgesia: ventilatory function improvement with routine use in treatment of blunt chest injury. J Trauma 27:1207-1212, 1987.

24. O'Donnell J, Ferguson LP, Beattie TF: Use of analgesia in a paediatric accident and emergency department following limb trauma. Eur J Emerg Med 9: 5-8, 2002.

25. Oncel M, Sencan S, Yildiz H, Kurt N: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for pain management in patients with uncomplicated minor rib fractures. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 22: 13-17, 2002.

26. Rawal N, Tandon B: Epidural and intrathecal morphine in intensive care units. Inten Care Med 11:129-133, 1985.

27. Richardson J, Bresland K: The management of postsurgical pain in the elderly population. Drugs Aging 13:17-31, 1998.

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29. Stanik-Hutt JA, Soeken KL, Belcher AE, Fontaine DK, Gift AG: Pain experiences of traumatically injured patients in a critical care setting. Am J Crit Care 10: 252-259, 2001.

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32. Ullman DA, Wimpy RE, Fortune JB, Greenhouse BB, Wimpy RE, Kennedy TM: The treatment of patients with multiple rib fractures using continuous thoracic epidural narcotic infusion. Reg Anes 14:43-47, 1989.

33. Wasner G, Backonja MM, Baron R: Traumatic neuralgias: complex regional pain syndromes (reflex sympathetic dystrophy and causalgia): clinical characteristics, pathophysiological mechanisms and therapy. Neurol Clin 16:851-868, 1998.

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35. Whipple JK, Lewis KS, Quebbeman EJ, Esser MJ, Gottlieb MS, McKindley DS, Hess M, Boucher BA, Jancik JT, Wesley LC: Current patterns of prescribing and administering morphine in trauma patients. Pharmacotherapy 15:210-215, 1995.

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38. Young VL, Sea MK, Feely CA, Arfken C, Edwards DF, Baum CM, Logan S: Detecting cumulative trauma disorders in workers performing repetitive tasks. Am J Ind Med 27:419-431, 1995.