Compiled by W. Andrew Kofke, M.D.
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

Anesthetic Effects

1. Becker A, Tiedge A, Grecksch GA: Diazepam-its effects on the development of pentylenetetrazol kindling, related learning impairments, and neuronal cell loss. Pharm Res 35:27-32, 1997.

*2. Benthuysen JL, Stanley TH: Concerning the possible nature of reported fentanyl seizures. Anesthesiology 62:205, 1985.

*3. Black JA, Golden FT, Fariello RG: Ketamine activation of experimental corticoreticular epilepsy. Neurology 30:315-318, 1980.

+4. Borgeat A: Propofol: pro- or anticonvulsant? Eur J Anaesth 15:S17-S20, 1997.

5. Bowyer JF, Winters WD: The effects of various anesthetics on amygdaloid kindled seizures. Neuropharmacology 20:199-209, 1981.

6. Brazier MA: Thiopental: effects on subcortical mechanisms in temporal lobe epilepsy. Anesthesiology 28:192-200, 1967.

7. Brown AS, Horton JM: Status epilepticus treated by intravenous infusion of thiopentone sodium. Br Med J 1:27-28, 1967.

8. Butterbaugh GG, Michelson HB: Anticonvulsant properties of phencyclidine and ketamine. Nat Inst Drug Res Monogr Ser 64:67-79, 1986.

9. Cain DP, Corcoran ME: Epileptiform effects of met-enkephalin, beta-endorphin, and morphine: kindling of generalized seizures and potentiation of epileptiform effects by handling. Brain Res 338:327-336, 1985.

*10. Carlsson C, Smith DS, Keykhah MM, Englebach I, Harp JR: The effects of high-dose fentanyl on cerebral circulation and metabolism in rat. Anesthesiology 57:375-380, 1982.

11. Cascino GD, So EL, Sharbrough FW, Strelow D, Lagerlund TD, Milde LN, O'Brian PC: Alfentanil-induced epileptiform activity in patients with partial epilepsy. J Clin Neurophys 10:520-525, 1993.

12. Celesia GG, Chen C, Bamforth BJ: Effects of ketamine in epilepsy. Neurology 25:169-172, 1975.

13. Cervantes M, Antonio-Ocampo A, Ruelas R, Contreras-Gomez A, Chavez-Carrillo I: Effects of diazepam on fentanyl-induced epileptoid EEG activity and increase of multineuronal firing in limbic and mesencephalic brain structures. Arch Med Res 27:495-502, 1996.

14. Cheng MA, Tempelhoff R, Silbergeld DL, Theard MA, Haines SK, Miller JW: Large-dose propofol alone in adult epileptic patients: electrocorticographic results. Anesth Analg 83:169-174, 1996.

15. Chugani HT, Ackerman RF, Chugani DC, Engel J Jr: Opioid-induced epileptogenic phenomena: anatomical, behavioral and electroencephalographic features. Ann Neurol 15:361-368, 1984.

16. Clifford DB, Olney JW, Benz AM, Fuller TA, Zorumski CF: Ketamine, phencyclidine, and MK-801 protect against kainic acid-induced seizure-related brain damage. Epilepsia 31:382-390, 1990.

17. Clifford DB, Zormuski CF, Olney JW: Ketamine and MK-801 prevent degeneration of thalamic neurons induced by focal cortical seizures. Exp Neurol 105:272-279, 1989.

18. Corssen G, Little SC, Tavakoli M: Ketamine and epilepsy. Anesth Analg 53:319-335, 1974.

19. Dasheiff RM, Kofke WA: Evaluation of the thiopental test in epilepsy surgery patients. Epilepsy Res 15:253-258, 1993.

20. DeToledo JC: Lidocaine and seizures. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 22:320-2, 2000.

21. DeToledo JC, Minagar A, Lowe MR: Lidocaine-induced seizures in patients with history of epilepsy: effect of antiepileptic drugs. Anesthesiology 97:737-9, 2002.

22. Domino EF: Comparative seizure inducing properties of various cholinesterase inhibitors: anatagonism by diazepam and midazolam. Neurotoxicology 8:113-122, 1987.

23. Drummond JC, Iragui-Modaz VJ, Alksne JF, Kalkman CJ: Masking of epileptiform activity by propofol during seizure surgery. Anesthesiology 76:652-654, 1992.

24. Dundee JW, Gray RC: Thiopentone in status epilepticus. Br Med J 1:362, 1967.

*25. Ebrahim ZY, DeBoaer GE, Luders H, Hahn JF, Leser RP: Effect of etomidate on the electroencephalogram of patients with epilepsy. Anesth Analg 65:1004-1006, 1986.

*26. Ebrahim ZY, Schubert A, Van Ness P, Wolgamuth B, Awad I: The effect of propofol on the electroencephalogram of patients with epilepsy. Anesth Analg 78:275-279, 1994.

27. Eger EI II: Are seizures caused by nitrous oxide or isoflurane? Anesthesiology 62:697-698, 1985.

28. Eger EI 2^nd, Koblin DD, Sonner J. Gong D, Laster MJ, Ionescu P, Halsey MJ, Hudlicky T: Nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds may produce convulsions by two mechanisms. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 88:884-92, 1999.

+29. Evans DE: Anaesthesia and the epileptic patient. A review. Anaesthesia 30:34-45, 1975.

30. Ferrer-Allado T, Berchnre VL, Dymond A, Dymond A, Cozen H, Crandall P: Ketamine-induced electroconvulsive phenomena in the human limbic and thalamic regions. Anesthesiology 38:333-344, 1973.

31. Fiol ME, Torres F, Gates JR, Maxwell R: Methohexital (Brevital) effect on electrocorticogram may be misleading. Epilepsia 31:524-528, 1990.

32. Fujikawa DG: Neuroprotective effect of ketamine administered after status epilepticus onset. Epilepsia 36:186-195, 1995.

33. Grant IS, Hutchinson G: Epileptiform seizures during prolonged etomidate sedation. Lancet 2:511-512, 1983.

34. Hagen N, Swanson R: Strychnine-like multifocal myoclonus and seizures in extremely high-dose opioid administration: treatment strategies. J Pain Symptom Manage 14:51-58, 1997.

35. Harper MH, Winter PM, Johnson BH, Koblin DD, Eger EI II: Withdrawal convulsions in mice following nitrous oxide. Anesth Analg 59:19-21, 1980.

36. Harris R, Paul R: The use of methohexitone in electrocorticography. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 27:333-334, 1969.

37. Harrison MB, Shumate MD, Lothman EW: Opioid peptide expression in models of chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuroscience 65:785-795, 1995.

38. Hewitt PB, Chu DL, Polkey CE, Binnie CD: Effect of propofol on the electrocorticogram in epileptic patients undergoing cortical resection. Br J Anaesth 82:199-202, 1999.

39. Hymes JA: Seizure activity during isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 65:367-368, 1985.

40. Igartua J, Silver P, Maytal J, Sagy M: Midazolam coma for refractory status epilepticus in children. Critical Care Medicine. 27:1982-5, 1999.

41. Iijima T, Nakamura Z, Iwao Y, Sankawa H: The epileptogenic properties of the volatile anesthetics sevoflurane and isoflurane in patients with epilepsy. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 91:989-95, 2000.

42. Jain PD, Pandey K, Chandra HK: Diazepam prophylaxis for lignocaine induced convulsions. Anaesth Intensive Care 3:331-333, 1975.

43. Jawad S, Oxley J, Wilson J, Richens A: A pharmacodynamic evaluation of midazolam as an anti-epileptic compound. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49:1050-1054, 1986.

*44. Kearse LA Jr, Koski G, Husain MV, Philbin DM, McPeck K: Epileptiform activity during opioid anesthesia. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 87:374-379, 1993.

45. Keene DL, Roberts D, Splinter WM, Higgins M, Ventureyra E: Alfentanil mediated activation of epileptiform activity in the electrocorticogram during resection of epileptogenic foci. Canadian J Neurol Sci 24:37-39, 1997.

*46. Kofke WA, Bloom MJ, Van Cott A, Brenner RP: Electrographic tachyphylaxis to etomidate and ketamine used for refractory status epilepticus controlled with isoflurane. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 9:269-272, 1997.

*47. Kofke WA, Garman RH, Tom WC, Rose ME, Hawkins RA: Alfentanil-induced hypermetabolism, seizure, and neuropathology in rats. Anesth Analg 75:1017-1020,1992.

*+48. Kofke WA, Tempelhaff R, Dasheiff RM: Anesthetic implications of epilepsy, status epliepticus, and epilepsy surgery. J Neurosurg Anesthiol 9:349-372, 1997.

*49. Kofke WA, Towfighi J, Garman RH, Graybeal JM, Housman C, Hawkins RA: Effect of anesthetics on neuropathologic sequelae of status epilepticus in rats. Anesth Analg 77:330-337, 1993.

*50. Kofke WA, Young RSK, Davis P, Woelfel SK, Gray L, Johnson D, Gelb A, Meeke R, Warner DS, Pearson KS: Isoflurane for refractory status epilepticus: a clinical series. Anesthesiology 71:653-659, 1989.

51. Komatsu H, Ueki M, Morita J, Chujo K, Ogli K: Clinical characteristics and biotransformation of sevoflurane in paediatric patients during antiepileptic drug therapy. Paediatric Anaesthesia 6:379-382, 1996.

52. Lal Koul R, Raj Aithala G, Chacko A, Joshi R, Seif EM: Continuous midazolam infusion as treatment of status epilepticus. Arch Dis Child 76:445-448, 1997.

*53. Lieb JP, Babb TL, Engel J Jr: Quantitative comparison of cell loss and thiopental-induced EEG changes in human epileptic hippocampus. Epilepsia 30:147-156, 1989.

54. Lothman EW, Collins RC: Kainic acid limbic seizures: metabolic, behavioral, electroencephalographic and neuropathological correlates. Brain Res 218:299-318, 1981.

55. Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ, Simon RP: Barbiturate anesthesia in the treatment of status epilepticus: clinical experience with 14 patients. Neurology 38:395-400, 1988.

56. Madar I, Lesser RP, Krauss G, Zubieta JK, Lever JR, Kinter CM, Ravert HT, Musachio JL, Mathews WB, Dannals RF, Frost JJ: Imaging of delta- and mu-opioid receptors in temporal lobe epilepsy by positron emission tomography. Ann Neurology 41:358-367, 1997.

*57. Makawa T, Tommasino C, Shapiro HM: Local cerebral blood flow with fentanyl-induced seizures. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 4:88-95, 1984.

*58. Male CG, Allen EM: Methohexitone-induced convulsions in epileptics. Anaesth Intensiv Care 5:226-230, 1977.

59. Manninen PH, Burke SJ, Wennberg R, Lozano AM, El Beheiry H: Intraoperative localization of an epileptogenic focus with alfentanil and fentanyl. Anesth Analg 88:1101-1106, 1999.

60.  Manson JH, Dyke G, Melling J, Gough M: The effect of naloxone and morphine on convulsions in mice following withdrawal from nitrous oxide. Can Anaesth Soc J 30:28-31, 1983.

61. Mesry S, Baradaran J: Accidental intrathecal injection of gallamine triethiodide. Anaesthesia 29:301-304, 1974.

*+62. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF: Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part 1). Anesth Analg 70:303-315, 1990.

*+63. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF: Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part 2). Anesth Analg 70:433-444, 1990.

*64. Molbegott LP, Flashburg MH, Karasic JL, Karlin BL: Probable seizures after sufentanil. Anesth Analg 66:91-93, 1987.

65. Moore DC, Balfour RI, Fitzgibbons D: Convulsive arterial plasma levels of bupivacaine and the response to diazepam therapy. Anesthesiology 50:454-456, 1979.

66. Murao K, Shingu K, Tsushima K, Takahira K, Ikeda S, Matsumoto H, Nakao S, Asai T: The anticonvulsant effects of volatile anesthetics on penicillin-induced status epilepticus in cats Anesthesia & Analgesia. 90:142-7, 2000.

67. Murao K, Shingu K, Tsushima K, Takahira K, Ikeda S, Nakao S: The anticonvulsant effects of volatile anesthetics on lidocaine-induced seizures in cats Anesthesia & Analgesia. 90:148-55, 2000.

68. Ornstein E, Matteo RS, Young WL, Diaz J: Resistance to metocurine-induced neuromuscular blockade in patients receiving phenytoin. Anesthesiology 63:294-298, 1985.

69. Pitt-Miller PL, Elcock BJ, Maharaj M: The management of status epilepticus with a continuous propofol infusion. Anesth Analg 78:1193-1194, 1994.

70. Poulton TJ, Ellingson RF: Seizure associated with induction of anesthesia with isoflurane. Anesthesiology 61:471-476, 1984.

71. Puglisi-Allegra S, Cabib S, Oliverio A: Pharmacological evidence for a protective role of the endogenous opioid system on electroshock-induced seizures in the mouse. Neurosci Lett 62:241-247, 1985.

*72. Rampil IJ, Lopez CE, Laxer KD, Barbaro NM: Propofol sedation may disrupt interictal epilepiform activity from a seizure focus. Anesth Analg 77:1071-1073, 1993.

73. Rantala H, Saukkonen AL, Remes M, Uhari M: Efficacy of five days' barbiturate anesthesia in the treatment of intractable epilepsies in children. Epilepsia. 40:1775-9, 1999.

74. Rao TL, Mummaneni N, El-Etr AA: Convulsions: an unusual response to intravenous fentanyl administration. Anesth Analg 61:1020-1021, 1982.

75. Rashkin MC, Youngs C, Penovich P: Pentobarbital treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 37:500-503, 1987.

76. Rockoff MA, Goudsouzian NG: Seizures induced by methohexital. Anesthesiology 54:333-335, 1981.

*77. Ropper AH, Kofke WA, Bromfield EB, Kennedy SK: Comparison of isoflurane, halothane, and nitrous oxide in status epilepticus. Ann Neurol 19:98-99, 1986.

78. Rozan JP, Kahn CH, Warfield CA: Epidural and intravenous opioid-induced neuroexcitation. Anesthesiology 83:860-863, 1995.

79. Safwat AM, Daniel D: Grand mal seizure after fentanyl administration. Anesthesiology 59:78, 1983.

*80. Samra SK, Sneyd JR, Ross DA, Henry TR: Effects of propofol sedation on seizures and intracranially recorded epileptiform activity in patients with partial epilepsy. Anesthesiology 82:843-851, 1995.

81. Sato Y, Sato K: Shamoto H. Kato M. Yoshimoto T: Effect of nitrous oxide on spike activity during epilepsy surgery. Acta Neurochirurgica. 143:1213-5, 2001.

82. Sawyer GT, Webster DD, Schut LF: Treatment of uncontrolled seizure activity with diazepam. JAMA 203:913-918, 1986.

83. Scott JC, Sarnquist FH: Seizure-like movements during a fentanyl infusion with absence of seizure activity in a simultaneous EEG recording. Anesthesiology 62:812-814, 1985.

84. Sharpe MD, Young GB, Mirsattari S, Harris C: Prolonged desflurane administration for refractory status epilepticus. Anesthesiology. 97(1):261-4, 2002.

85. Siggins GR, Henriksen SJ, Chavkin C, Gruol D: Opioid peptides and epileptogenesis in the limbic system: cellular mechanisms. Adv Neurol 44:505-512, 1986.

+86. Simmons ML, Chavkin C: Endogenous opioid regulation of hippocampal function. International Review of Neurobiology 39:145-196, 1996.

87. Smith RA, Winter PM, Smith M, Eger EI II: Convulsions in mice after anesthesia. Anesthesiology 50:501-504, 1979.

88. Snead OC III, Bearden LF: The epileptogenic spectrum of opiate agonists. Neuropharmacology 21:1137-1144, 1982.

89. Snyder EW, Shearer DE, Beck EC, Dustman RE: Naloxone-induced electrographic seizures in the primate. Psychopharmacology 67:211-214, 1980.

90. Soriano SG, Eldredge EA, Wang FK, Kull L, Madsen JR, Black PM, Riviello JJ, Rockoff MA: The effect of propofol on intraoperative electrocorticography and cortical stimulation during awake craniotomies in children. Paediatric Anaesthesia. 10(1):29-34, 2000.

91. Sperling MR, Brown WJ, Crandall PH: Focal burst-suppression induced by thiopental. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 63:203-208, 1986.

92. Sprung J, Schedewie HK: Apparent focal motor seizure with a jacksonian march induced by fentanyl: a case report and review of the literature. J Clin Anesth 4:139-143, 1992.

+93. Sutherland MJ, Burt P: Propofol and seizures. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care 22:733-737, 1994.

94. Tassinari CA, Daniele O, Michelucci R, Bureau M, Dravet C, Roger J: Benzodiazepines: efficacy in status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 34:465-475, 1983.

*95. Tempelhoff R, Modica PA, Bernardo KL, Edwards I: Fentanyl-induced electrocorticographic seizures in patients with complex partial epilepsy. J Neurosurg 77:201-208, 1992.

96. Tommasino C, Mawkawa T, Shapiro HM, Keifer-Goodman J, Kohlenberger RW: Fentanyl-induced seizures activate subcortical brain metabolism. Anesthesiology 60:283-290, 1984.

97. Tortella FC, Robles L, Mosberg HI: Evidence for mu opioid receptor mediation of enkephalin-induced electroencephalographic seizures. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 240:571-577, 1987.

98. Turski WA, Czuczwar SJ, Kleinok Z, Schwartz M, Turski L: Intra-amygdaloid morphine produces seizures and brain damage in rats. Life Sci 33:615-618, 1983.

99. Urca G, Frenk H, Liebeskind JC, Taylor AN: Morphine and enkephalin: analgesic and epileptic properties. Science 197:83-86, 1977.

100. Urca G, Frenk H: Systemic morphine blocks the seizures induced by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of opiates and opioid peptides. Brain Res 246:121-126, 1982.

101. Usubiaga JE, Wikinski J, Ferrero R, Usubiaga IE, Wikinski R: Local anesthetic-induced convulsions in man-an electroencephalographic study. Anesth Analg 45:611-620, 1966.

102. Vakkuri A, Jantti V, Sarkela M, Lindgren L, Korttila K, Yli-Hankala A: Epileptiform EEG during sevoflurane mask induction: effect of delaying the onset of hyperventilation. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 44:713-9, 2000.

103. Vakkuri A,Yli-Hankala A, Sarkela M, Lindgren L, Mennander S, Korttila K, Saarnivaara L, Jantti V: Sevoflurane mask induction of anaesthesia is associated with epileptiform EEG in children. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. 45:805-11, 2001.

104. Walder B, Tramer MR, Seeck M: Seizure-like phenomena and propofol: a systematic review. Neurology 58:1327-32, 2002.

105. Walker MC, Perry H, Scaravilli F, Patsalos PN, Shorvon SD, Jefferys JG: Halothane as a neuroprotectant during constant stimulation of the perforant path. Epilepsia 40:359-364, 1999.

106. Watts AD, Herrick IA, McLachlan RS, Craen RA,Gelb AW: The effect of sevoflurane and isoflurane anesthesia on interictal spike activity among patients with refractory epilepsy. Anesth Analg 89:1275-1281, 1999.

107. Wennberg R, Quesney F, Olivier A, Dubeau F: Induction of burst-suppression and activation of epileptiform activity after methohexital and selective amygdalo-hippocampectomy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 102:443-451, 1997.

108. Werz MA, MacDonald RL: Opiate alkaloids antagonize postsynaptic glycine and GABA responses: correlation with convulsant action. Brain Res 236:107-119, 1982.

109. Woodforth IJ, Hicks RG, Crawford MR, Stephen JP, Burke DJ: Electroencephalographic evidence of seizure activity under deep sevoflurane anesthesia in a nonepileptic patient. Anesthesiology 87:1579-1582, 1997.

110. Yli-Hankala A, Vakkuri A, Sarkela M, Lindgren L, Korttila K, Jantti V: Epileptiform electroencephalogram during mask induction of anesthesia with sevoflurane. Anesthesiology 91:1596-1603, 1999.

111. Young GB, Blume WT, Bolton CF, Warren KG: Anesthetic barbiturates in refractory status epilepticus. Can J Neurol Sci 7:291-292, 1980.

112. Young ML, Smith DS, Greenburg J, Reivich M, Harp JR: Effects of sufentanil on regional cerebral glucose utilization in rats. Anesthesiology 61:564-568, 1984.

113. Young RS, Ropper AH, Hawkes D, Woods M, Yohn P: Pentobarbital in refractory status epilepticus. Pediatr Pharmacol 3:63-67, 1983.

114. Zieglgansberger W, French ED, Siggins GR, Bloom FE: Opioid peptides may excite hippocampal pyramidal neurons by inhibiting adjacent inhibitory interneurons. Science 205:415-417, 1979.

Experimental, Drug Induced Seizures

1. Blenow G, Nilsson B, Siesjö BK: Influence of reduced oxygen availability on cerebral metabolic changes during bicuculline-induced seizures in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 5:439-445, 1985.

2. Borgstrom L, Chapman AG, Siesjö BK: Glucose consumption in the cerebral cortex of rat during bicuculline-induced status epilepticus. J Neurochem 17:971-973, 1976.

3. Cavalheiro EA, Santos NF, Priel MR: The pilocarpine model of epilepsy in mice. Epilepsia 37:1015-1019, 1996.

4. Chapman AG, Meldrum BS, Siesjö BK: Cerebral metabolic changes during prolonged epileptic seizures in rats. J Neurochem 28:1025-1035, 1977.

5. Coulter DA, McIntyre DC, Loscher W: Animal models of limbic epilepsies: what can they tell us?. Brain Pathology 12:240-56, 2002.

6. Duffy TE, House DC, Plum F: Cerebral energy metabolism during experimental status epilepticus. Neurochemistry 24:925-934, 1975.

7. Eger EI 2^nd, Koblin DD, Sonner J, Gong D, Laster MJ, Ionescu P, Halsey MJ, Hudlicky T: Nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds may produce convulsions by two mechanisms. Anesth Analg 88:884-892, 1999.

8. Emerson MR, Nelson SR, Samson FE, Pazdernik TL: Hypoxia preconditioning attenuates brain edema associated with kainic acid-induced status epilepticus in rats. Brain Res 825:189-193, 1999.

9. Faherty CJ, Xanthoudakis S, Smeyne RJ: Caspase-3-dependent neuronal death in the hippocampus following kainic acid treatment. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 70:159-163, 1999.

10. Fernandes MJ, Dube C, Boyet S, Marescaux C, Nehlig A: Correlation between hypermetabolism and neuronal damage during status epilepticus induced by lithium and pilocarpine in immature and adult rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:195-209, 1999.

11. Ferraro TN, Golden GT, Snyder R, Laibinis M, Smith GG, Buono RJ, Berrettini WH: Genetic influences on electrical seizure threshold. Brain Res 813:207-210, 1998.

12. Folbergrova J, Ingvar M, Nevander G, Siesjö BK: Cerebral metabolic changes during and following fluorothyl-induced seizures in ventilated rats. J Neurochem 44:1419-1426, 1985.

13. Griffiths T, Evans MC, Meldrum BS: Intracellular calcium accumulation in rat hippocampus during seizures induced by bicuculline or 1-allyglycine. Neuroscience 10:385-395, 1983.

14. Gross PM, Weaver DF: A new experimental model of epilepsy based on the intraventricular injection of endothelin. J Cardiovasc Pharm 22:S282-S287, 1993.

15. Gruenthal M: Electroencephalographic and histological characteristics of a model of limbic status epilepticus permitting direct control over seizure duration. Epilepsy Res 29:221-232, 1998.

16. Hellier JL, Patrylo PR, Buckmaster PS, Dudek FE: Recurrent spontaneous motor seizures after repeated low-dose systemic treatment with kainate: assessment of a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 31:73-84, 1998.

17. Hirsch E, Danober L, Simler S, Pereira de Vasconcelos A, Maton B, Nehlig A, Marescaux C, Vergnes M: The amygdala is critical for seizure propagation from brainstem to forebrain. Neuroscience 77:975-984, 1997.

18. Hosford DA: Animal models of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Journal of Clin Neurophysiol 16:306-313, 1999.

*19. Howse DC: Cerebral energy metabolism during experimental status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 34:209-216, 1983.

20. Iadarola MJ, Gale K: Substantia nigra: site of anticonvulsant activity mediated by gamma-aminoburyric acid. Science 218:1237-1240, 1982.

*+21. Ingvar M: Cerebral blood flow and metabolic rate during seizures. Ann NY Acad Sci 462:194-206, 1986.

22. Jasper HH: Application of experimental models to human epilepsy, Experimental Models of Epilepsy. Edited by Purpura DP, Penry JK, Tower DB, Woodbury DM, Walter RD. New York, Raven Press. 585-601, 1972.

23. Jensen FE: Acute and chronic effects of seizures in the developing brain: experimental models. Epilepsia 40:S51-S58, 1999.

24. Jiang W, Duong TM, de Lanerolle NC: The neuropathology of hyperthermic seizures in the rat. Epilepsia 40:5-19, 1999.

25. Kabuto H, Yokoi I, Habu H, Willmore LJ, Mori A, Ogawa N: Reduction in nitric oxide synthase activity with development of an epileptogenic focus induced by ferric chloride in the rat brain. Epilepsy Research 25:65-68, 1996.

26. Karle J, Woldbye DP, Elster L, Diemer NH, Bolwig TG, Olsen RW, Nielsen M: Antisense oligonucleotide to GABA(A) receptor gamma2 subunit induces limbic status epilepticus. J Neurosci Res 54:863-869, 1998.

27. Kelley KA, Ho L, Winger D, Freire-Moar J, Borelli CB, Aisen PS, Pasinetti GM: Potentiation of excitotoxicity in transgenic mice overexpressing neuronal cyclooxygenase-2. Am J Pathol 155:995-1004, 1999.

*28. Kofke WA, Barmada MA, Rudy TE: Effects of hyperglycemia on seizure induced brain damage in rats. Neurol Res 15:333-338, 1993.

29. Koh S, Storey TW, Santos TC, Mian AY, Cole AJ: Early-life seizures in rats increase susceptibility to seizure-induced brain injury in adulthood. Neurology 53:915-921, 1999.

30. Kupferberg H: Animal models used in the screening of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 42:7-12, 2001.

31. Leite JP, Garcia-Cairasco N, Cavalheiro EA: New insights from the use of pilocarpine and kainate models Epilepsy Research 50:93-103, 2002.

32. Liu H, Mazarati AM, Katsumori H, Sankar R, Wasterlain CG: Substance P is expressed in hippocampal principal neurons during status epilepticus and plays a critical role in the maintenance of status epilepticus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 96:5286-5291, 1999.

33. Loscher W, Ebert U: The role of the piriform cortex in kindling. Progress in Neurobiology 50:427-481, 1996.

34. Loscher W: Animal models of epilepsy for the development of antiepileptogenic and disease-modifying drugs. A comparison of the pharmacology of kindling and post-status epilepticus models of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Research 50:105-23, 2002.

35. McGeer RG, Olney JW, McGeer PL: Kainic Acid as a tool on Neurobiology, Raven Press, New York, 1978.

+36. McNamara JO, Byrne MC, Dasheiff RM, Fitz JG: The kindling model of epilepsy: a review. Prog Neurobiol 15:139-159, 1980.

37. Maeda T, Hashizume K, Tanaka T: Effect of hypothermia on kainic acid-induced limbic seizures: an electroencephalographic and 14C-deoxyglucose autoradiographic study. Brain Res 818:228-235, 1999.

38. Mazarati A, Liu H, Wasterlain C: Opioid peptide pharmacology and immunocytochemistry in an animal model of self-sustaining status epilepticus. Neuroscience 89:167-173, 1999.

39. Meldrum BS, Vigouroux RA, Rage P, Brierly JB: Hippocampal lesions produced by prolonged seizures in paralyzed artificially ventilated baboons. Experientia 25:561-563, 1973.

40. Nahorski SR, Roberts DJ, Stewart GG: Some neurochemical aspects of pentamethylenetetrazole convulsive activity in rat brain. J Neurochem 17:621-631, 1970.

41. Najm IM, Hadam J, Ckakraverty D, Mikuni N, Penrod C, Sopa C, Markarian G, Luders HO, Babb T, Baudry M: A short episode of seizure activity protects from status epilepticus-induced neuronal damage in rat brain. Brain Res 810:72-75, 1998.

42. Narahashi T: Chemicals as tools in the study of excitable membranes. Physiol Rev 54:812-889, 1974.

43. Nevander G, Ingvar M, Auer R, Siesjö BK: Status epilepticus in well-oxygenated rats causes neuronal necrosis. Ann Neurol 18:281-290, 1985.

44. Niebauer M, Gruenthal M: Neuroprotective effects of early vs. late administration of dantrolene in experimental status epilepticus. Neuropharmacology 38:1343-1348, 1999.

45. O'Connell BK, Towfighi J, Kofke WZ, Hawkins RA: Neuronal lesions in mercaptopropionic acid-induced status epilepticus. Acta Neuropathol 77:47-54, 1988.

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Surgical Therapy

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