Compiled by Mark H. Zornow, M.D.
University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas

Physiology

+1. Alvis R, Geheb M, Cox M: Hypo- and hyperosmolar states: diagnostic approaches, Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders, Vol I, 1st edition. Edited by Arieff AI, DeFronzo RA. New York, Churchill Livingstone, pp 185-219, 1985.

+2. Arieff AI: Effects of water, acid-base, and electrolyte disorders on the central nervous system, Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders, Vol I, 1st edition. Edited by Arieff AI, DeFronzo RA. New York, Churchill Livingstone, pp 969-1040, 1985.

3. Benveniste H, Kim KR, Hedlund LW, Kim JW, Friedman AH: Cerebral hemorrhage and edema following brain biopsy in rats: significance of mean arterial blood pressure. J Neurosurg 92:100-107, 2000.

+4. Bevan DR: Osmometry. 1. Terminology and principles of measurement. Anaesthesia 33:794-800, 1978.

5. Bevan DR: Osmometry. 2. Osmoregulation. Anaesthesia 33:801-808, 1978.

6. Bevan DR: Osmometry. 3. Clinical applications. Anaesthesia 33:809-814, 1978.

7. Bevan DR: Colloid osmotic pressure. Anaesthesia 35:263-270, 1980.

8. Clasen RA, Bezkorovainy A, Pandolfi S: Protein and electrolyte changes in experimental cerebral edema. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 41:113-128, 1982.

*9. Fenstermacher JD, Johnson JA: Filtration and reflection coefficients of the rabbit blood-brain barrier. Am J Physiol 211:341-346, 1966.

+10. Fenstermacher JD: Volume regulation of the central nervous system. New York, Raven Press, pp 383-404, 1984.

+11. Gabel JC, Drake RE: Plasma proteins and protein osmotic pressure, Edema, Edited by Staub NC, Taylor AE. New York, Raven Press, pp 371-381, 1984.

12. Gennari FJ: Current concepts: serum osmolality. N Engl J Med 310:102-105, 1984.

13. Klatzo I: Pathophysiological aspects of brain edema. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 72:236-239, 1987.

+14. Loeb JN: Current concepts: the hyperosmolar state. N Engl J Med 290:1184-1187, 1974.

15. Marty AT, Zweifach BW: The high oncotic pressure effects of dextrans. Arch Surg 101:421-424, 1970.

+16. Peters RM, Hargens AR: Protein vs electrolytes and all of the Starling forces. Arch Surg 116:1293-1298, 1981.

17. Shimoyama R, Miyata H, Ohama E, Kawai Y: Does edema formation occur in the rabbit brain exposed to head-down tilt? Jpn J Physiol 50:141-147, 2000.

+18. Starling EH: On the absorption of fluids from the connective tissue spaces. J Physiol 19:312-326, 1896.

19. Strange K, Morrison R: Volume regulation during recovery from chronic hypertonicity in brain glial cells. Am J Physiol 263:C412-C419, 1992.

Methods

1. Albright AL, Latchaw RE: Effects of osmotic and oncodiuretic therapy on CT- brain density and intracranial pressure. Acta Neurochir 78:119-122, 1985.

2. Bacher A, Wei J, Grafe MR, Quast MJ, Zornow MH: Serial determinations of cerebral water content by magnetic resonance imaging after an infusion of hypertonic saline. Crit Care Med 26:108-114, 1998.

*3. Bothe HW, Bodsch W, Hossmann KA: Relationship between specific gravity, water content, and serum protein extravasation in various types of vasogenic brain edema. Acta Neuropathol 64:37-42, 1984.

4. Cascino T, Baglivo J, Conti J, Szewczykowski J, Posner JB, Rottenberg DA: Quantitative CT assesment of furosemide- and mannitol- induced changes in brain water content. Neurology (Cleve) 33:898-903, 1983.

+5. Clasen RA, Cooke PM, Pandolfi S, Boyd D, Raimondi AJ: Experimental cerebral edema produced by focal freezing: an anatomic study using vital dye techniques. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 21:579-596, 1962.

6. Fujiwara K, Nitsch C, Suzuki R, Klatzo I: Factors in the reproducibility of the gravimetric method for evaluation of edematous changes in the brain. Neurol Res 3:345-361, 1981.

7. Krieger DW, Demchuk AM, Kasner SE, Jauss M, Hantson L: Early clinical and radiological predictors of fatal brain swelling in ischemic stroke. Stroke 30:287-292, 1999.

*8. Marmarou A, Poll W, Schulman K, Bhagavan H: A simple gravimetric technique for measurement of cerebral edema. J Neurosurg 49:530-537, 1978.

*9. Marmarou A, Tanaka K, Schulman K: An improved gravimetric measure of cerebral edema. J Neurosurg 56:246-253, 1982.

10. Mintorovitch J, Yang GY, Shimizu H, Kucharczyk J, Chan PH, Weinstein PR: Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of acute focal cerebral ischemia: comparison of signal intensity with changes in brain water and Na+, K+(ATPase activity. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14:332-336, 1994.

11. Olson JE, Katz-Stein A, Reo NV, Jolesz FA: Evaluation of acute brain edema using quantitative magnetic resonance imaging: effects of pretreatment with dexamethasone. Magn Reson Med 24:64-74, 1992.

*12. Picozzi P, Todd NV, Crockard AH: The role of cerebral blood volume changes in brain specific-gravity measurements. J Neurosurg 62:704-710, 1985.

13. Schuier FJ, Hossmann KA: Experimental brain infarcts in cats: II. Ischemic brain edema. Stroke 11:593-601, 1980.

14. Shigeno T, Brock M, Shigeno S, Fritschka E, Cervos-Navarro J: The determination of brain water content: microgravimetry versus drying-weighing method. J Neurosurg 57:99-107, 1982.

Osmotherapy

1. Arieff AI: Hyponatremia, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and permanent brain damage after elective surgery in healthy women. N Engl J Med 314:1529-1535, 1986.

2. Aviram A, Pfau A, Czaczkes JW, Ullmann TD: Hyperosmolality with hyponatremia, caused by inappropriate administration of mannitol. Am J Med 42:648-650, 1967.

3. Ayus JC, Krothapalli RK, Arieff AI: Treatment of symptomatic hyponatremia and its relation to brain damage: a prospective study. N Engl J Med 317:1190-1195, 1987.

*4. Ayus JC, Armstrong DL, Arieff AI: Effects of hypernatremia in the central nervous system and its therapy in rats and rabbits. J Physiol 492.1:243-255, 1996.

5. Belayev L, Liu Y, Zhao W, Busto R, Ginsberg MD: Human albumin therapy of acute ischemic stroke: marked neuroprotective efficacy at moderate doses and with a broad therapeutic window. Stroke 32:553-560, 2001.

6. Berger S, Schurer L, Hartl R, Messmer K, Baethmann A: Reduction of post-traumatic intracranial hypertension by hypertonic/hyperoncotic saline/dextran and hypertonic mannitol. Neurosurgery 37:98-107, 1995.

7. Chi OZ, Lu X, Wei HM, Williams JA, Weiss HR: Hydroxyethyl starch solution attenuates blood-brain barrier disruption caused by intracarotid injection of hyperosmolar mannitol in rats. Anesth Analg 83:336-341, 1996.

8. Clark RS, Kochanek PM: Pass the salt? Crit Care Med 26:1161-1162, 1998.

9. Cole DJ, Drummond JC, Patel PM, Nary JC, Applegate RL: Effect of oncotic pressure of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) on brain injury after temporary focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Anesth Analg 83:342-347, 1996.

10. Cote C, Greenhow D, Marshall B: The hypotensive response to rapid intravenous administration of hypertonic solutions in man and in the rabbit. Anesthesiology 50:30-35, 1979.

11. Drummond JC, Patel PM, Cole DJ, Kelly PJ: The effect of the reduction of colloid oncotic pessure, with and without reduction of osmolality, on post-traumatic cerebral edema. Anesthesiology 88:993-1002, 1998.

12. Eilig I, Rachinsky M, Artru AA, Alonchin A, Kapuler V, Tarnopolski A, Shapira Y: The effect of treatment with albumin, hetastarch, or hypertonic saline on neurological status and brain edema in a rat model of closed head trauma combined with uncontrolled hemorrhage and concurrent resuscitation in rats. Anesth Analg 92:669-675, 2001.

*13. Fisher B, Thomas D, Peterson B: Hypertonic saline lowers raised intracranial pressure in children after head trauma. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 4:4-10, 1992.

14. Goldszer RC, Coodley EL: Survival with severe hypernatremia. Arch Intern Med 139:936-937, 1979.

15. Goulin GD, Duthie SE, Zornow MH, Scheller MS, Peterson BM: Global cerebral ischemia: effects of pentastarch after reperfusion. Anesth Analg 79:1036-1042, 1994.

16. Hartl R, Schurer L, Goetz C, Berger S, Rohrich F, Baethmann A: The effect of hypertonic fluid resuscitation on brain edema in rabbits subjected to brain injury and hemorrhagic shock. Shock 3:274-279, 1995.

*17. Kaieda R, Todd MM, Warner DS: Prolonged reduction in colloid oncotic pressure does not increase brain edema following cryogenic injury in rabbits. Anesthesiology 71:554-560, 1989.

18. Kien ND, Kramer GC, White DA: Acute hypotension caused by rapid hypertonic saline infusion in anesthestized dogs. Anesth Analg 73:597-602, 1991.

19. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Norenberg MD: Rapid correction of hyponatremia causes demyelination: relation to central pontine myelinolysis. Science 211:1068-1070, 1981.

20. Manninen PH, Lam AM, Gelb AW, Brown SC: The effect of high-dose mannitol on serum and urine electrolytes and osmolality in neurosurgical patients. Can J Anaesth 34:442-446, 1987.

21. McManus ML, Soriano SG: Rebound swelling of astroglial cells exposed to hypertonic mannitol. Anesthesiology 88:1586-1591, 1998.

*22. McManus ML, Strange K: Acute volume regulation of brain cells in response to hypertonic challenge. Anesthesiology 78:1132-1137, 1993.

23. Moran M, Kapsner C: Acute renal failure associated with elevated plasma oncotic pressure. N Engl J Med 317:150-153, 1987.

24. Moreno M, Murphy C, Goldsmith C: Increase in serum potassium resulting from the administration of hypertonic mannitol and other solutions. J Lab Clin Med 73:291-298, 1969.

25. Prough DS, Johnson JC, Poole GV, Stullken EH, Johnston WE, Royster R: Effects on intracranial pressure of resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock with hypertonic saline versus lactated Ringer's solution. Crit Care Med 13:407-411, 1985.

26. Prough DS, Zornow MH: Mannitol: an old friend on the skids? Crit Care Med 26:997-998, 1998.

27. Prough DS, Zornow MH: Hypertonic maintenance fluids for patients with cerebral edema: Does the evidence support a "phase II" trial? Crit Care Med 26:421-422, 1998.

28. Qureshi AI, Suarez JI, Bhardwaj A, Mirski M, Schnitzer MS, Hanley DF, Ulatowski JA: Use of hypertonic (3%) saline/acetate infusion in the treatment of cerebral edema: Effect on intracranial pressure and lateral displacement of the brain. Crit Care Med 26:440-446, 1998.

29. Rakic M, Vegan B, Sprung J, Biocic M, Barnas GM, Bourke DL: Acute hyperosmolar coma complicating anesthesia for hydatid disease surgery. Anesthesiology 80:1175-1178, 1994.

30. Rudehill A, Gordon E, Öhman G, Lindquist C, Anderson P: Pharmacokinetics and effects of mannitol on hemodynamics, blood and cerebrospinal fluid electrolytes, and osmolality during intracranial surgery. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 5:4-12, 1993.

*31. Scheller MS, Zornow MH, Oh YS: A comparison of the cerebral and hemodynamic effects of mannitol and hypertonic saline in a rabbit model of acute cryogenic brain injury. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 3:291-296, 1991.

32. Schmoker J, Zhuang J, Shackford S: Hypertonic fluid resuscitation improves cerebral oxygen delivery and reduces intracranial pressure after hemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 31:1607-1613, 1991.

33. Schwarz S, Georgiadis D, Aschoff A, Schwab S: Effects of hypertonic (10%) saline in patients with raised intracranial pressure after stroke. Stroke 33:136-140, 2002.

34. Simma B, Burger R, Falk M, Sacher P, Fanconi S: A prospective, randomized, and controlled study of fluid management in children with severe head injury: lactated Ringer's solution versus hypertonic saline. Crit Care Med 26:1265-1270, 1998.

35. Suarez JI, Qureshi AI, Bhardwaj A, Williams MA, Schnitzer MS, Mirski M, Hanley DF, Ulatowski JA: Treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension with 23.4% saline. Crit Care Med 26:1118-1122, 1998.

36. Symon L, Branston NM, Chikovani O: Ischemic brain edema following middle cerebral artery occlusion in baboons: relationship between regional cerebral water content and blood flow at 1 to 2 hours. Stroke 10:184-191, 1979.

37. Tommasino C, Moore S, Todd MM: Cerebral effects of isovolemic hemodilution with crystalloid or colloid solutions. Crit Care Med 16:862-868, 1988.

*38. Vassar MJ, Perry CA, Gannaway WL, Holcroft JW: 7.5% sodium chloride/dextran for resuscitation of trauma patients undergoing helicopter transport. Arch Surg 126:1065-1072, 1991.

39. Vassar MJ, Fischer RP, O'Brien PE, Bachulis BL, Chambers JA, Hoyt DB, Holcroft JW: A multicenter trial for resuscitation of injured patients with 7.5% sodium chloride. Arch Surg 128:1003-1011, 1993.

40. Warren SE, Blantz RC: Mannitol. Arch Intern Med 141:493-497, 1981.

+41. Weed LH, McKibben PS: Experimental alteration of brain bulk. Am J Physiol 48:531-555, 1919.

42. Young RSK, Truax BT: Hypernatremic hemorrhagic encephalopathy. Ann Neurol 5:588-591, 1979.

43. Zornow MH, Todd MM, Moore SS: The acute cerebral effects of changes in plasma osmolality and oncotic pressure. Anesthesiology 67:936-941, 1987.

44. Zornow MH, Scheller MS, Todd MM, Moore SS: Acute cerebral effects of isotonic crystalloid and colloid solutions following cryogenic brain injury in the rabbit. Anesthesiology 69:180-184, 1988.

45. Zornow MH, Scheller MS, Shackford SR: Effect of a hypertonic lactated ringer's solution on intracranial pressure and cerebral water content in a model of traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 29:484-488, 1989.